Let's begin Module 2: Recognizing Indicators. At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 

1. Recognize indicators that someone is on the pathway to violence, including the role that stressors play and the importance of addressing concerning behaviors
2. Identify potential concerning behaviors, how to recognize them, and when to take appropriate action
3. Identify common pre-attack indicators demonstrated by active shooters and how to recognize them

Over the past 20 years, tragic active shooter incidents seem ever-more present in our public consciousness. In the United States, there have been on average 15 active shooter incidents annually since 2000, with the largest number happening in 2017, when 30 incidents occurred. With the potential of an active shooter affecting us, the first question we typically ask is: What should I do if I find myself in an active shooter situation? However, there is a more important question to ask, that may save more lives. That paramount question is - What can I do to help prevent an active shooter incident? To answer this question, we need to understand what may lead to someone becoming an active shooter.  

Let’s imagine for a moment that our lives are a complex road network, filled with many different pathways for us to navigate. Our decisions lead us down different pathways, and each of these pathways leads us to different outcomes. As we navigate this complex road network that is our lives, we experience many stressful life events. These include things like financial strain, workplace bullies, and mental health challenges, including depression and anxiety. Sometimes, we encounter a number of stressors in a short period of time. For most people, these times can be some of the toughest of their lives. Many people seek out and receive support from friends, family, and mental health professionals to manage these difficult situations. However, for a very small number of people, the stressors aren’t dealt with or become overwhelming or compounded. Coupled with a perceived wrong, known as a grievance, they can lead a person onto what is known as a Pathway to Violence. 

The Pathway to Violence is comprised of six-steps that active shooters often go through leading up to their attack. The first step, which serves as the on-ramp to the pathway, is a grievance. A grievance is a feeling of resentment over something believed to be wrong or unfair. Grievances may be real or perceived, justified or unjustified. According to an FBI study on pre-attack behaviors, nearly 80%, or 4 out of 5 active shooters, had a grievance prior to their attack, and for 35%, a grievance was identified as the triggering event prior to the shooting.  

Grievances very rarely lead to violence. However, when someone becomes fixated on a grievance, they may shift to violent ideation. A violent ideation is a thought or fantasy of hurting or even killing someone. Violent ideations resulting from a grievance are usually focused towards that very same person or group of persons associated with the grievance. Sometimes, violent ideations begin with thoughts like, “someone should kill them,” and later progresses to “I should kill them.” It is not unusual for a potential attacker to share these thoughts with friends, colleagues, or in online forums, intentionally or unintentionally.

Once a person has decided that violence is the answer to resolve their grievance, they will likely begin research and planning, considering how they are going to carry out their violent intent. This may include things like timing, location, targets, and methods.

Even on the Pathway to Violence, individuals are likely to still experience stressors which may keep the attacker focused on the path.  

Once the plan is developed, they will often prepare by acquiring the necessary tools, materials, and skills.

While most attackers have some connection to their attack site, in many cases having worked there, they still often probe and breach the site to finalize their plan of attack. This may include determining how they will access secure areas and conducting some form of final surveillance.  

The final step in the Pathway to Violence is the attack itself.

Let’s pause. Now that we understand what may lead to someone becoming an active shooter, the question is, what can we do to help prevent an active shooter incident? Well, the first step is knowing the indicators that may be visible when someone is headed towards or already on the Pathway to Violence. Potential attackers demonstrate indicators all along the pathway and experience a numerous stressors prior to their attack. Let’s rewind.

There are often visible concerning behaviors when someone is on the Pathway to Violence. These include things like concerning communications, which includes making threats or leaking their violent intent others. It also includes things like lower work performance, reduced quality of thinking or communication, and an unusual increase in conflicts with friends and family. In fact, 95% of active shooters included in an FBI study displayed at least two concerning behaviors prior to their attack, with the average being 4.7.

It is important to understand these potential concerning behaviors so we can recognize them and take appropriate action to address them when seen. We can deescalate the situation and divert potential attackers off the Pathway to Violence, either through personal intervention or by directing services or law enforcement.

However, we don’t have to wait for someone to be on the Pathway to Violence, demonstrating these concerning behaviors, to take action and stop an attack. We need to support people early to help them better manage their stressors, well before they even consider getting on the Pathway to Violence. We can do this by ensuring our organization’s culture fosters a connected, respectful, and supportive work environment. This starts by listening to those around us and providing support when people begin to show they are experiencing significant stressors. In fact, there is a likelihood that someone in your life, right now, is dealing with one or more of these stressors and could benefit from your support.

Click the right arrow to learn more about the indicators and how you can intervene to reduce the likelihood of an attack.

Now that we understand the pathway to violence, including the role that stressors play and the importance of addressing concerning behaviors, we will give you the tools you need to help reduce the likelihood of an active shooter incident. While many groups play specialized roles in prevention, such as your organization’s leadership, human resources, security, and law enforcement, we all play a critical part in supporting active shooter prevention. There are just three simple tools we need.

The ability to:

Recognize the indicators that someone is in need of support or intervention, including the stressors active shooters commonly experienced, as well as the concerning behaviors commonly displayed by active shooters prior to their attack.

• Provide support with empathy and compassion when we see these indicators and avoid creating more stress.
• Engage professional help to intervene, such as supervisors, human resources, security, or law enforcement.

In the following sections, we will discuss:

• the most common indicators, and how to recognize them, 
• how to provide direct support for each indicator, and 
• how and when you may need to engage professional help.

Click the right arrow to begin reviewing the common indicators.

There are many visible indicators commonly associated with active shooters, including both stressors and concerning behaviors.

Stressors are physical, psychological, or social forces that place real or perceived demands or pressures on an individual and which may cause psychological and/or physical distress. Examples include financial pressures, physical health concerns, and mental health issues.

Concerning Behaviors are observable behaviors exhibited by the active shooter. Examples include recklessness, violent media usage, changes in hygiene and weight, impulsivity, firearm behavior, and physical aggression.

According to a study done by the FBI, 98% of active shooters experienced stressors in the year prior to their attack, with an average of 3.6 stressors per attacker. Additionally, 95% of active shooters demonstrated at least two concerning behaviors prior to their attack. On average, people who knew the active shooter witnessed 4 to 5 different concerning behaviors, with some occurring years before the attack. The vast majority of active shooters demonstrate visible warning behaviors before their attack. It is up to you to learn those indicators and know what actions you should take when you see them. We will share the five most common pre-attack indicators demonstrated by active shooters in the FBI study and how you may recognize them. Afterwards, we will identify how you may provide support when you see these indicators, and what professional help may be engaged.

Here are 14 of the more than 25 pre-attack indicators identified in the FBI Active Shooter study. Five of these indicators were associated with more than half of the active shooters studied. What do you think were the five most common indicators?

• Adult Criminal Convictions
• Mental Health Struggles (Depression, Anxiety, Paranoia, etc.)
• Mental Illness (Psychotic disorder, mood disorder, etc.)
• Leakage of Intent
• Financial Strain
• Problematic Interpersonal Interactions
• Lower Work Performance
• Reduced Quality of Thinking or Communication
• Marital Problems
• Grievances
• Anger
• Illicit Substance Abuse
• Threats / Confrontations
• Physical Aggression

The five most common indicators identified by the FBI study were: 

• Having a Grievance, associated with 79% of active shooters studied;
• Mental Health Struggles, such as depression and anxiety associated with 62%;
• Problematic Interpersonal Interactions, associated with 57%;
• Leakage of Intent, associated with 56%, and
• Reduced Quality of Thinking or Communication, associated with 54%.

In the remainder of this section, we will review each of these indicators so you can learn how to recognize them. After that, we will review how to intervene when you see potential indicators.

Click the right arrow to learn about the first indicator.

According to the FBI study, grievances were the most common indicator associated with active shooters. As we discussed earlier, grievances are also commonly the onramp to the Pathway to Violence, making them particularly important to recognize. While most grievances do not result in violence, grievances in terms of active shooters are often associated with a heightened fixation. According to the FBI, in the context of this study, a grievance is “More than a typical feeling of resentment or passing anger” and “often results in a grossly distorted preoccupation with a sense of injustice, like an injury that fails to heal. These thoughts can saturate a person’s thinking and foster a pervasive sense of imbalance between self-image and the (real or perceived) humiliation. This nagging sense of unfairness can spark an overwhelming desire to “right the wrong” and achieve a measure of satisfaction and/or revenge.”

79% of the active shooters studied “appeared to be acting in accord with a grievance of some kind.” In more than 90% of these cases, the grievances, whether real or perceived, were personal in nature. These include things such as:

• adverse interpersonal actions, which are inappropriate or mal-intentioned acts such as bullying or harassment,
• adverse employment actions, such as forced administrative leave, promotion restrictions, loss of pay, denial of transfer, or a low or mediocre job performance rating,
• adverse academic actions; and, 
• domestic issues.

Very few, less than 7%, were grievances associated with a more global issue, such as an ideology or hatred of a group of people.

Many people experience adverse actions in their lifetime or feel a sense of resentment or bitterness over an issue. Most people get past these situations with support from others; however, some will become fixated on the grievance, which is an indicator of potential escalation. If someone you know seems preoccupied with a sense of injustice, it is important to recognize that they may be fixated on a grievance. If you witness an adverse action against another person, whether justified or seemingly unfair, it is important to pay attention to their reaction and notice if they seem overwhelmingly affected by or fixated on the situation. If they are overwhelmed or fixated, their feelings may escalate into something more if it is not addressed. We’ll talk about what you can do to intervene in the next section but first, click the right arrow to learn about the next common indicator.

The second most prevalent indicator found in the FBI study was the appearance that shooters struggled with mental health challenges in the year prior to the attack. It is important to note that mental health challenges do not equate to mental illness. In the context of the FBI study, mental illness refers to a diagnosed condition, such as a psychotic disorder, anxiety disorder, or mood disorder; whereas, mental health challenges refer to short-term manifestations of behaviors or moods that do not warrant a mental illness diagnosis, such as occasional depression or anxiety. While only 25% of the active shooters studied were known to have been diagnosed with a mental illness, 62% appeared to deal with mental health challenges. Stressors, such as death, divorce, financial strain, unresolved grievances, or a job loss may lead to mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, or compound existing mental health challenges or mental illness.

Let’s review the symptoms of some of the common mental health challenges, such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation, so you know how to recognize them.

Depression is a general sense of sadness or loss of interest. Symptoms include:

• feelings of hopelessness
• a loss of interest in things that were once enjoyable
• changes in sleep patterns, whether fatigue or insomnia
• irritability
• changes in appetite, either overeating or not eating
• uncontrollable emotions that can change from one moment to the next, and
• thoughts of self-harm.

Depression and anxiety often go hand-in-hand. Symptoms of anxiety can include: 

• a feeling of nervousness or restlessness
• feelings of danger, dread, or panic
•  a rapid heart rate
• rapid breathing or hyperventilating
• difficulty sleeping
• trembling or muscle twitching, and 
• a difficulty focusing on things other than what you are worried about.

If you see any of these symptoms, it is important to recognize that the person may be dealing with depression, anxiety, or other mental health challenges.

Click the right arrow to learn more.

As mentioned, one symptom of depression is thoughts of self-harm. The FBI found high levels of suicide ideation associated with the active shooters they studied. While a National Survey on Drug Use and Health showed that in 2015, 4% of adults had serious thoughts of suicide, the FBI study found that 48% of active shooters studied had suicidal ideation or engaged in suicide related behaviors at some point prior to the attack, with many occurring within 12 months of the attack.

Suicidal ideation is being preoccupied with the idea of suicide or thoughts of committing suicide. One may regularly think about the way they would commit suicide or think about what life would be like if they were not around. Suicidal ideation ranges from a fleeting consideration to a detailed plan.

Family and friends are often the first to notice something is wrong, long before a suicide attempt or an individual engages in an act of violence. Take a moment to review “What to Listen for” on the screen. If a colleague, friend, or loved one makes these statements, or says something similar, it is important to recognize that they may be considering suicide or another violent act. After you review the list, click the right arrow to learn about the next indicator.

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You can Help, What to Listen for: “I have nothing to live for, I want to die”; “I recently bought a weapon, such as a gun.”; “I feel hopeless and have no reason to live”; “I feel trapped and in unbearable pain all the time”; “I am a burden to others”; “I have turned to drugs and alcohol”; “I am very anxious and agitated”; “Some days I am sleeping too little or too much”; “I have showed rage toward others and want revenge”; “I have extreme mood swings”

The third most common indicator identified in the FBI study was problematic interpersonal interactions. While conflict and disagreements are normal in relationships, whether with another employee at work, with a friend, or romantic partner, if the frequency of problematic interactions increases, it may be a symptom of a larger challenge.

There are many causes of conflict in relationships, such as a lack of understanding or poor communication, unclear or unfair expectations, evolving personality differences, newly discovered conflicting values, and incompatible goals. However, an unusual increase in the amount of conflict or disagreement can also be an indicator of potential violence. 57% of the active shooters studied demonstrated increased levels of conflict or disagreement in ongoing relationships with colleagues, family, or friends. This may appear as general tension in the relationship beyond what is typical, or specific instances of serious and ongoing disagreement. If you witness an unusual increase in the amount of conflict or disagreement associated with a coworker, friend, or family member, it is important to recognize that it may be an indicator of a bigger issue and could escalate if not resolved.

Click the right arrow to learn about the next indicator.

The fourth most common indicator identified in the FBI study was leakage of the intent to commit violence. 56% of active shooters included in the FBI study leaked their intent to commit violence prior to the attack. “Leakage occurs when a person intentionally or unintentionally reveals clues to a third-party about feelings, thoughts, fantasies, attitudes or intentions that may signal the intent to commit a violent act.”

Unfortunately, people may explain away these communications or not take them seriously when they occur. This may be due to a variety of reasons, such as a fear of overreacting or concern about how law enforcement may respond. While more than half of the active shooters in the FBI study leaked their intent to commit violence, no bystanders reported leakage to law enforcement prior to the attack.

Leakage includes things like indirect threats of harm, subtle threats, innuendo about a desire to commit a violent attack, and boasting about the ability to harm others. It may be clear and directed towards a specific target, or vague and general. It may occur verbally, in writings, or in online interactions.

If you hear or see these sorts of subtle communications, it is important to recognize that they may be leaking their intent to commit violence, and that you must take action to reduce the likelihood of a tragedy.

Click the right arrow to learn about the next indicator.

The fifth most common indicator identified by the FBI study was reduced quality of thinking or communication, demonstrated by 54% of the active shooters studied. Reduced quality of thinking or communication includes indications of confused or irrational thought. It may also take the form of negative self-talk like:

• Catastrophizing, which is automatically expecting the worst, 
• Filtering, which is focusing on the negative and ignoring the positive, or
• Personalizing, which is automatically blaming yourself when something goes wrong.

You may recognize reduced quality of thinking or communication in coworkers, friends, or family in a variety of ways, such as in conversations, writings, or online discussions, or possibly even through lower work performance. If you see this sort of change in someone, it is important to recognize that it may be an indicator of a larger issue and/or that it could escalate to something more.

Click the right arrow to continue.

While we have reviewed the five most common indicators associated with active shooters, it is important to note that there are more than a dozen other indicators associated with the active shooters in the FBI study. These include things like:

• Financial Strain, which refers to a job loss, debt collection, potential or actual eviction, or the inability to pay normal and usual daily bills. This was demonstrated by 49% of active shooters in the study. 
• Threats and confrontations, demonstrated by 35% of active shooters in the study.
• Anger and Physical Aggression, each demonstrated by 33% of active shooters in the study.
• Abuse of illicit drugs or alcohol, associated with 22% of active shooters in the study.
• Risk-Taking, meaning actions that show more than a usual disregard for significant negative consequences, demonstrated by 21% of active shooters in the study.
• And a change, escalation, or contextually inappropriate firearms behavior, meaning interest in or use of firearms that appears unusual given the active shooter’s background and experience with firearms. This was associated with 21% of active shooters in the study.

Take a look at the Quick Reference Guide from the FBI Study for a complete list of indicators studied.

While many of these indicators are common, and don’t necessarily indicate violent intent on their own, it is important to recognize them, as they can be an indicator of a larger issue or potential violence, particularly when someone is exhibiting several of these indicators.

Now that we’ve reviewed the common indicators and how to recognize them, click the right arrow to learn about how to address the indicators when you see them.  

You have reached the end of Module 2: Recognizing Indicators. You should now be able to: 

1. Recognize indicators that someone is on the pathway to violence, including the role that stressors play and the importance of addressing concerning behaviors
2. Identify potential concerning behaviors, how to recognize them, and when to take appropriate action
3. Identify common pre-attack indicators demonstrated by active shooters and how to recognize them