Being able to communicate effectively is a necessary and vital part of every emergency management professional’s job. This course is designed to improve your communication skills.

This course is part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Emergency Management Institute’s independent study Professional Development Series.

Select this link for more information on the Professional Development Series.

This course contains four lessons. To help you keep track of your place within the course, the current lesson title is displayed in the upper left corner of each screen. In addition, a Lesson List is presented at the beginning and end of each lesson.

The lesson overview states the approximate length of the lesson. The progress bar is displayed in the upper right corner of each content screen to help you gauge your movement through the course.

At the conclusion of this course, you should be able to:

• Identify factors that contribute to and detract from effective communication.
• Develop a strategy for ensuring that emergency communications meet the needs of the whole community, including those with access and functional needs.
• Identify strategies for communicating effectively in emergency situations.
• Identify strategies for improving your oral presentation skills.

This lesson presents information about how the entire communication process contributes to effective communication.

At the completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe one communication model.
• Indicate the value of empathic listening and effective feedback.
• Indicate how speakers’ and listeners’ nonverbal cues impact communication.
• Identify vocal factors that contribute to effective communication.
• Assess your current communication skills.

Audio Transcript

During an incident, communicating clearly and accurately can help to reassure survivors and assist them in making responsible choices. Effective communicators:

• Project conviction and passion for subject matter.
• Have credibility.
• Make even a large audience feel a personal connection.
• Seem poised and confident.
• Are well prepared and organized.
• Use clear and concise language.
• Use nonverbal gestures that draw attention while not being distracting.
• Vary the pace and know when to pause to make a point.
• Energize the listeners with a call to action.
• Maintain a professional demeanor.

As you will learn, being an effective communicator involves establishing a personal connection with the audience and using basic communication tools to reach that audience. To communicate effectively—whether your audience is an individual, small group, or large audience—it is helpful to understand the basic skills that form the building blocks of effective communication.

Let’s begin with a brief look at what happens when two people communicate.

Oral communication is fluid and dynamic, and is shaped by both the speaker and the audience. Even in its simplest form, communication is a two-way process in which several things typically happen: 

• You send a message using your voice and nonverbal cues.
• The other person listens, interpreting and personalizing the message, and gives feedback verbally and nonverbally.
• Meanwhile, you are listening to the verbal feedback and attending to the nonverbal cues in order to gauge how your message was received and to understand the other person’s response.

The process is then repeated in the typical flow of conversation.

Communication is of course not limited to just oral communication, but includes, text messages, emails, body language.  The factors in the overall model still apply. This course will focus on the oral communication aspect of process. 

Attending, or listening, is critical for successful communication. While 50% of the time should be spent listening, this often does not happen. Listening entails much more than just hearing sound.

• Hearing is a sensory experience that gathers sound waves indiscriminately. We can hear something without choosing to listen.
• Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process.

Listening is hearing, interpreting, and constructing meanings; an active process that is not limited to the spoken word; and an essential way of participating in daily routines as well as wider decision-making processes (Clark, 2005).

Barriers to effective listening can be external or internal. External roadblocks can include multitasking distracters such as text messages, email, social media, or a setting with too many distractions. Try to be aware of external roadblocks and offset them if possible.

Internal roadblocks include conditions or reactions within the speaker or audience, such as:

• Emotional interference or defensiveness.
• Hearing only facts and not feelings.
• Hearing what is expected instead of what is said.
• Not seeking clarification.
• Stereotyping.
• Resistance to change or automatic dismissal (e.g., “We’ve never done it that way before.”).

When listening, always:

• Listen to understand rather than respond.
• Be an active listener (give feedback)
• Keep an open mind.
• Maintain eye contact and show interest.
• Listen for the central themes.
• Consider the speaker’s nonverbal behaviors and tone of voice.

While listening, you should avoid:

• Being judgmental.
• Interrupting the speaker.
• Formulating a rebuttal.
• Distorting the message based on your own beliefs.
• Falling into traps (such as confirmation bias)

Using the following active listening techniques will help you to improve your listening skills.

• Decide to listen and concentrate on the speaker.
• Use your imagination and enter the speaker’s situation. Concentrate and try to imagine his or her frame of reference and point of view.
• Observe the speaker’s vocal inflection, enthusiasm or lack of it, and style of delivery. These are essential components of the message. If you are speaking face-to-face, pay attention to the speaker’s facial expressions and other nonverbal cues for more insight into the message.
• Listen without interruption. Note key phrases or use word associations to remember the speaker’s content.
• Use paraphrasing or clarifying questions to confirm that you received the intended message. Paraphrasing demonstrates that you listened by:
• Summarizing—restating the speaker’s statement and feelings.
• Using your own words—not parroting back what was said.
• Remaining neutral—expressing neither your agreement nor disagreement (verbally or nonverbally).
• Check your perceptions of how the speaker is feeling—are you putting the text of the message in the appropriate emotional context?

While non-verbal communication is a crucial part of the process, their importance has been greatly exaggerated. Rolling your eyes, crossing your arms, the tone of your voice, and your facial expressions all contribute to shaping the message that is decoded and interpreted by the receiver. Does your body language match your intended message?

As Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “Your actions speak so loud I cannot hear what you are saying.”

Nonverbal Statistics False Assumption

Be aware that your emotions are contagious.  That's right, you can catch the emotions of another just like you catch a cold. This phenomenon, known as emotional contagion, is caused by mirror neurons. Mirror neurons are specialized brain cells that allow us to sense and feel the emotions of someone else. 

When communicating, be aware that your emotions may effect the person(s) receiving your message.  If you are happy and excited, this could be a good thing as it may cause the receiver to experience the same feelings. On the other hand, if you are angry or upset you could unknowingly transmit these negative emotions as well.  

Also be aware of catching positive or negative emotions from others.  

The Sender's nonverbal language reflects attitudes, emotions, state of mind, and related messages. Nonverbal cues include vocal and posture communications.

Vocal intonation:

• Pitch, tone, inflection, volume
• Rhythm, timing
• Silence

Body language:

• Posture, body position
• Head movements
• Eye movement
• Eye contact
• Facial expressions
• Fidgeting, yawning

When nonverbal cues don’t match the spoken words, the result is mixed messages.

Often, nonverbal cues contradict or supersede verbal messages, and listeners instinctively react with mistrust and caution. Mixed messages can indicate that the speaker:

• Is experiencing conflict.
• Is not sincere.
• Is not committed to the message.

If the man in the image says he agrees with the plan, how does his nonverbal expression conflict?

Instructions: To better understand how well your nonverbal message syncs with your verbal message try the following activity. 

Ask a colleague to use a cell phone to video record you the next time you’re presenting to a group. 

Then, play back the recording with the sound turned off, focusing on your nonverbal language. Consider these questions:

• Does my body language reinforce my message?
• Are there any mannerisms of which I wasn’t aware?
• Does my facial expression, posture, or use of hands send any unintended message?
• How could I improve my nonverbal language to communicate more effectively?

Audio Transcript, Presentation Skills

When speaking in a large room, or outdoor location use a microphone.

Public speaking doesn’t come naturally to everyone, but it is a skill that can be learned. Understanding the basics and practicing will make most of us better speakers. It’s also helpful to begin small (e.g., a small group and informal setting) and work up to greater challenges.

When presenting to an audience, be sure to:

• Use clear and concise language.
• Speak loud enough to be heard.
• Vary the pace of your presentation.
• Slow down for important points.
• Use the pause.
• Avoid speaking with a monotone voice.

To make yourself heard, imagine that you are talking directly to the person who is farthest away, not the person in the front row. Standing up makes it easier to create volume. The following techniques can help you project your voice:

• If the room is large, use a microphone.
• Use short phrases and slow your pace.
• Lower your pitch to reduce stress and to make your voice carry.
• Don’t try to talk over noise or side conversations.
• Rest your voice between presentations and take a drink of water.

Microphone; most people do not think they need it – but do. Many speakers, when offered a microphone, refuse it, thinking they project their voice well. Too often they misjudge their capability ad the audience has trouble hearing them. When in doubt use a microphone. Generally you should hold it 2-10 inches from your mouth.  Don't be afraid to experiment with the distance to see what works for you.  

At transition points, or when you hear yourself adding a filler:

• Pause. (Remember . . . pauses will feel longer to you than to your audience!)
• Take a breath.
• Gather your thoughts.

Instructions: After completing the online portion of this lesson, look at the video you created earlier. Turn the volume on and listen to yourself without looking at the video screen. Ask yourself these questions:

• Does my voice project well enough to be heard clearly at the back of the room?
• How are my pitch, tone, and pace? Would lowering the pitch help me project better and sound more confident? Are the tone and pace varied enough to sustain interest?
• Overall, does my vocal demeanor match the message I am trying to convey?
• What improvements could I work on to communicate more effectively?

Audio Transcript, Engaging Your Audience

To summarize, the ability to engage your audience—whether an individual or a group—is a key element of effective communication. Basic strategies for engaging an audience include the following:

• Understand your audience, and use that understanding to tailor your communication.
• “Read” your audience and be sensitive to nonverbal cues.
• Listen carefully, using paraphrasing to confirm your understanding.
• Use questions to encourage interaction and allow time for audience response—even if it means remaining silent.

It is important that questions are clear, simple, and concise. Focus each question on a single issue.

Avoid Confusing Questions That Require More Than One Answer

“When presenting information is it more important to use verbal or nonverbal information, and what is the best way of reinforcing verbal points with visuals?”

Better Question

“What is an example of how you’ve used both verbal and nonverbal information to reinforce an important learning point?”

The intent of asking open-ended questions is to encourage participant responses and receive a variety of answers. 

• Acknowledge all responses in a positive manner. Never ignore a response or comment, and never judge a person’s response or declare that an answer is wrong.
• Avoid the tendency to answer your own question. Instead, wait a few seconds, so that someone can respond. If too much time passes, then rephrase the question.
• If a response is unclear, ask a clarifying question and allow sufficient time for the person to rephrase or clarify the response.

Additional ways to get your audience involved include:

• Clear your mind of all distractions.
• Try not to place a barrier, such as a lectern, between you and the audience.
• Avoid standing in a fixed position, slouching, fidgeting, or shifting your weight.
• Use natural and spontaneous gestures and positive facial expressions.
• Avoid nonverbal behaviors that could be seen as negative or judgmental. (Frowning, shaking head, crossing arms are examples that most would feel uncomfortable if received from a person that asked them to speak. )
• Don’t be afraid to let your conviction and passion for the subject matter show.
• Demonstrate enthusiasm through your voice, facial expressions, and body movements.
• Draw people in by walking toward them.
• Avoid distracting behavior such as looking at your watch, or jingling change.

Instructions: Review the provided job aid on basic communication skills. Then analyze your own strengths and areas for improvement in each basic skill, including:

• Listening.
• Managing your own nonverbal communication.
• Observing and “reading” nonverbal communication in others.
• Using your voice.
• Engaging your audience.

Job aid summarizing key points for each skill

Worksheet to record your self analysis

This lesson presented an overview of basic communication skills. You should now be able to:

• Indicate the value of empathic listening and effective feedback.
• Indicate how speakers’ and listeners’ nonverbal cues impact communication.
• Identify vocal factors that contribute to effective communication.
• Indicate how actively engaging the audience contributes to effective communication.
• Assess your current communication skills.

This lesson presents strategies for ensuring that you communicate effectively with the whole community, including those with access and functional needs.

At the completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Analyze your community to identify groups requiring consideration when preparing and delivering communications.
• Identify factors that impact communication requirements.
• Identify strategies for communicating effectively with the whole community.
• Identify aspects of communicating with respect.

Audio Transcript, Communicating With the Whole Community

In emergency management, communication responsibilities are typically quite varied. Your responsibilities may include:

• Educating the community on emergency preparedness.
• Keeping people informed about emergency plans, issues, and events.
• Issuing alerts and warnings.
• Providing accurate information during incidents.
• Sharing information with response partners.
• Engaging the community in dialogues about disaster recovery.

Your target audience can be described generally as “everyone who can benefit from the information.”

Although up to this point we have focused primarily on oral communication skills, you have a wide variety of communication tools at your disposal, including:

• Print-based materials.
• Web-based content.
• Broadcast media (television and radio).
• Telephone and face-to-face interaction with individuals.
• Large-group forums such as public meetings.
• Social media.

We’ll look more closely at the various communication media in the next lesson. For now, let’s consider ways to ensure that your message—regardless of the medium—is appropriate for the whole community.

Communities are diverse. They include people of all ages, diverse cultural groups, and individuals with access and functional needs. A first step in communicating across cultures or with individuals who have access and functional needs is to never assume sameness. Access and functional needs are factors that impact an individual’s ability to obtain information, needed programs, and services. These factors include, but are not limited to:

• Disabilities that impact hearing, vision, speech, cognitive skills, and mobility.
• Limited English proficiency.
• Literacy limitations.

It is important to know the composition of your community and to understand what that composition means for the way you communicate.

Understanding the community is not a one-time event or analysis. Because communities are constantly changing, the process must be an ongoing effort to stay in tune with the capabilities and needs of the population.

Understand community complexity so you will know who your audience is. For example, learn about your community’s demographics, and educate your emergency management staff. Potential sources of information include:

• Census information.
• Jurisdiction profiles compiled by emergency planning teams.
• Social service agencies and organizations.
• Faith-based organizations and houses of worship.
• Advocacy groups.
• Chamber of commerce and business leaders.
• English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) programs.

Know the languages and communication methods/traditions in the community.

Consider not only what languages people speak and understand, but how they actually exchange new information and which information sources they trust. Be aware of myths and stereotypes.

Find out where the real conversations happen and decisions are made.

Decisions are not always made at the council level, but often at venues such as the community center, neighborhood block parties, social clubs, or places of worship. Tap into these opportunities to listen and learn more about the community. Develop strategies to reach community members and engage them in issues that are important to them.

Select each task below to learn how you can better understand the communication needs of your community:

• Understand community complexity.
• Know the languages and communication methods/traditions in the community.
• Find out where the real conversations happen and decisions are made.
• Implement outreach interventions.

Below are four key actions that will help you communicate effectively with the whole community:

• Ensure your message content is clear and understandable.
• Tailor your message delivery to specific needs.
• Identify alternate avenues for communication.
• Communicate with respect.

These actions will be described on the following screens.

As a baseline, all communications should be clear, user-friendly, and age appropriate.

• Be clear. Using plain language benefits most people. Avoid jargon and acronyms, passive voice, and complex structures.
• When presenting information orally, apply the basic communication skills related to listening, nonverbal cues, voice, and engaging the audience.
• Identify your audience, and make sure your presentation is age and education-level appropriate. Materials and presentations for children will not be the same as those for adults.
• Make sure the format is user-friendly, with an easy-to-follow format. Using symbols and graphics can add clarity and eliminate extra verbiage.

Segments of the population often have specific needs that, when met, enable them to participate fully in the exchange of information.

Let’s look, for example, at communicating with people who have:

• Sensory disabilities.
• Language or literacy requirements.
• Cultural factors that affect communication.

In the context of this course, sensory disabilities refer those that impact the channels of communication due to loss of hearing, vision, speech, or cognitive functioning.

Every individual is different. For example, a person with a vision disability may be blind or have low vision; the vision loss may have been present at birth, progressive, or caused by trauma, or might be happening gradually with aging.

Individuals with sensory disabilities may not be able to communicate their needs or ask for information, hear verbal announcements or alerts, see directional signs, communicate their circumstances to emergency responders, or understand how to get assistance due to their disability.

They may require auxiliary aids and services or language access services (such as interpreters and adapted materials) to participate effectively in communication.

A guiding principle for serving individuals with disabilities is access to effective communication.

• People with disabilities must be given the same information provided to the general population.
• Communication with people with disabilities must be as effective as communication with others.

Whether information is print-based, oral, or Web-based, appropriate media should be used to ensure information is communicated in alternate formats. Examples include:

• Sign language interpretation of spoken presentations.
• Video captioning.
• Downloadable large-print versions of materials.
• Braille versions of materials.
• Web content with screen reader capability.
• Recorded narrations describing visual materials.

Language and literacy factors impact the disaster experience because communication is vital to effective response activities.

Immigrants, migrant workers, undocumented workers, tourists, and exchange students may have language barriers. In addition, many individuals may have literacy barriers, including those with limited English proficiency, hearing or learning disabilities, older adults, and others. An estimated 20 percent of American adults read at or below the 5th grade level.

A 2013 study of print- and Web-based emergency preparedness materials collected from local and national sources found that half of the materials tested in the 10th grade to college range, and nearly all were above the 5th grade level.

Be sure your disaster-related materials are written at appropriate reading levels and provided in languages spoken in your community.

Individuals’ cultural heritage may affect not only language, but also how they:

• Transmit and interpret nonverbal cues.
• Respond to different styles of communication.
• Interact during communication.

Such impacts may be even more pronounced in older generations. Failure to discern attitudes, beliefs, values, and rules implicit in different groups could disenfranchise some citizens and work against the community’s goal of whole community preparedness.

Approach others with interest and openness. Approach generational and cultural differences with interest, not fear or negativity. Take interest in the interests of others. You can learn fascinating things about other people if you choose to do so.

Speak slowly and clearly. Focus on slowing down your speech. Try not to rush your communication. Remember, it takes more time to correct miscommunication and misunderstanding.

Ask for clarification. If you are not sure you understand the meaning being communicated, politely ask for clarification. Avoid assuming you’ve understood what’s been said.

Check your understanding frequently. Check both that you’ve understood what’s been said and that others have fully understood you. Use active listening to check your own understanding (e.g., “So what you are saying is . . . ”), and use open-ended questions to check other people’s understanding. Avoid generational or cultural idioms. Language is contextual and has cultural implications. Examples of idioms include sports or other expressions, such as: “ace in the hole” and “a long row to hoe.” As a good general rule, if the phrase requires knowledge of other information—be it a game, generational event, a metaphor, or current social media—recognize that this reference may make your communication more difficult to understand, or even worse, offensive.

Be careful of jargon. Watch the use of TLAs (Three-Letter Abbreviations) and other language or jargon that may not be understood by others.

Be patient. Cross-cultural communication may take more time.

Be sensitive to whether you are understood. Watch for “puzzled” looks from your audience. Most people show it on their faces when they don’t understand. Look for changes in body language

It’s not realistic to become an expert on every culture that you may encounter. However, it is reasonable for you to learn about the populations that make up major parts of your community.

Take the time to learn the basic customs of the ethnic groups in your community.

Tune in. Making yourself aware of key cultural and other differences that you will need to address during an emergency will help you learn what to expect of the groups and whether your message is being communicated.

Research. Read news articles about the groups represented in your community. Frequently, these articles can provide good insight into the people and the behaviors that are part of their cultures. (This strategy is especially helpful when you are new to a community or are from a different part of the country.)

Network. Talk to the leaders of the cultural groups in your community. You will find that most will be pleased that you care enough to make the effort and will be very willing to share key attributes of their culture with you.

Participate. Many communities sponsor special days on which the various cultures represented in the community can share their food, artwork, and other entertainment with their neighbors. Take the time to attend these events. Pay careful attention to what you see and hear.

When selecting how to communicate with and educate your community, it is wise to use multiple formats and media to reach the widest possible audience.

You should also identify distribution methods that will ensure everyone in the community gets the message. When conducting communication and education activities, include:

• Social, cultural, and religious groups.
• Advocacy groups.
• Ethnic radio and television stations that broadcast in their native languages.
• Children, to educate their parents.

And when disseminating information through public forums, be sure the facilities are accessible by those who use wheelchairs or other assistive devices.

Practice basic etiquette when meeting people with disabilities and others with access and functional needs. For example:

• Do not shout at a person with a hearing disability unless asked to do so. Speak in a normal tone but make sure your lips are visible. The same holds true for people with limited English proficiency.
• When meeting someone with a visual disability, identify yourself and others with you (e.g., “Jane is on my left and Jack is on my right.”). Continue to identify the person with whom you are speaking.
• If the person’s speech is difficult to understand, do not hesitate to ask him or her to repeat what was said. Never pretend to understand when you do not.

Additional etiquette guidelines include the following:

Find a place to sit and talk if a person has decreased physical stamina and endurance, which is preferable to standing during the entire interaction.

Place yourself at eye level with the person when conversing. Some ways to accomplish this without drawing attention to yourself are sitting on a chair or standing a little farther away to reduce the steep angle of the sightline. This is effective when interacting with all people who are sitting as well as persons with short stature.

Talk directly to the person with the disability, not to a person who accompanies them. Doing otherwise implies that you doubt their ability to understand.

Disability Etiquette Job Aid

Instructions: Take some time to analyze your community’s cultural communications needs.

Select this link to access a worksheet for organizing your analysis.  

This lesson presented strategies for ensuring that your communication meets the needs of the whole community. You should now be able to:

• Analyze your community to identify groups requiring consideration when preparing and delivering communications.
• Identify factors that impact communication requirements.
• Identify strategies for communicating effectively with the whole community.
• Identify aspects of communicating with respect.

This lesson presents strategies for communicating effectively in emergency situations. At the completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Indicate how day-to-day communication differs from communication during an incident.
• Identify strategies for communicating effectively in an emergency situation.
• Select the most appropriate form of communication for a given situation.
• Indicate how social media and other communications technology can be used to communicate with members of the community.

Audio Transcript, Communicating in an Emergency

Emergency communications differ from routine communications in several ways:

Barriers

It is more difficult for people to hear messages during an emergency. Stress, change of routine, and lack of sleep all can be hurdles to overcome when communicating during emergencies.

Timeliness

If official answers are not available, rumor and speculation quickly fill the information vacuum. Then, not only must you disseminate correct information, but you also need to counter any misinformation that circulated. To use media in a timely fashion, learn local media news cycles and deadlines. For example, if news occurs at 4:00 p.m., you can most likely get it on the radio immediately, on television in time for the evening report, and into the next morning’s edition of the local paper. Online news outlets can be updated at any time.

Required Response

Emergency warnings differ from other kinds of messages because their purpose is to elicit a specific response from the public, rather than merely raise awareness or provide knowledge.

Successful warnings are those that are taken seriously and responded to in a timely and effective manner. Multiple factors may have an impact on whether people respond to a warning, including:

• Individual characteristics—Age, education, language, access and functional needs, family composition, and length of residency, among others.
• Perceptions—Previous experience with a hazard and perceptions of proximity and risk.
• Message source—Who issues the warning, credibility of the warning source, and the level of trust in that source.
• The message itself—Accuracy, clarity, timeliness, consistency, and specificity of the message, and focus on immediate needs.

A key decision in planning emergency communications is how you will get the message to the audience. This decision is influenced by several factors, including:

The Audience

• Select media that have the greatest likelihood of reaching the intended audience:
• Are you sending your message to the general public? How many people does the information need to reach?
• Does your message apply only to people living in a specific geographic area?
• Is your message intended for emergency management personnel only?
• What is the primary language of the intended audience?
• Are there other languages that must also be accommodated?
• Where does this audience usually obtain news—TV? Radio? Newspapers? Community venues? Online? Social media?

Urgency

Match the speed and frequency of the media to how quickly and often your audience needs to know:

• Is this information related to immediate safety?
• Is this referral information for future recovery?
• Should urgency take priority over style and format?
• When do various media air, publish, or broadcast information? How long will this information be useful to the audience?
• How many times do you think your audience needs to see or hear your information before they act on it?

Reliability

• Ensure that your choice of media is reliable during the emergency:
• During this emergency situation, which media are functional?
• Are the radio, television, and newspaper companies functioning normally?
• Are residents currently located at their normal mailing addresses?
• Is mail delivery interrupted?
• Are there widespread power outages that affect some or all media outlets?
• Can you identify public places where your audience can assemble?

Appropriateness:

Choose appropriate media to enhance comprehension:

• Is your message too sensitive to send via fax?
• Is your audience geographically concentrated enough to make a public meeting possible?
• Can you make your point on a billboard?

Resources

Consider your resources in your media choice:

• Which staff will you need to implement this media approach?
• Can your budget afford a televised public service announcement?
• Can you deliver an effective public speech?

During an incident, a wide variety of communication tools are available to provide vital information to the community.

This section of the lesson will focus on the various tools available and factors to consider in choosing among them.

Choosing the right communication tool is a matter of getting the right information to the right people at the right time so they can make the right decisions. Remember, the most effective communication tool is one that:

• Reaches the target audience.
• Gets information to the audience when they need it, for as long as they need it.
• Can be expected to deliver the message reliably.
• Enhances comprehension of the message content.
• Can be accessed within resource limitations.

Most often, you will use a combination of high and low technology methods to deliver a consistent message to the whole community.

Tools and methods for emergency communications include:

• In-person events—briefings and public meetings.
• Print media—newspapers and magazines.
• Broadcast media—television and radio.
• Internet and social media.

The following screens present information about advantages, limitations, and requirements of each.

In-person events such as media briefings and public meetings can be used to get information to the media and the public. When properly planned and executed, these events can be a powerful tool to aid you in communicating the messages you want disseminated to the public while guiding the news media to important information for the public.

Advantages:

• Interactive, allowing participants to voice their questions and concerns and giving you the opportunity to respond.
• Can be targeted to specific populations.

Limitations:

• Require the ability to stay on message when the audience becomes vocal.
• May expose you to difficult questions.

Requirements:

• An appropriate, accessible venue.
• Public address equipment.

Print media such as newspapers and magazines can be used to disseminate information that is not time-critical. These media are especially effective for presenting indepth analysis of developing situations and for educating the public about preparedness. Most newspapers and magazines have Web sites where they will also post your story.

Advantages:

• Allow for more detail and indepth treatment of the subject.
• Permit a variety of approaches—e.g., news story, interview, background piece.

Limitations:

• Take longer to get the message out.
• May be filtered through another spokesperson.

Requirements:

• Details and background information.
• Access to subject-matter experts.
• Access to photo opportunities.

Television and radio can be used to disseminate information quickly, through the Emergency Alert System (EAS), Public Service Announcements (PSAs), and news programs. More indepth features can also be presented. Stations that broadcast in other languages can be used as an avenue to reach specific populations within the community.

Advantages:

• Immediate broadcasting of urgent messages.
• Varied programming.
• Can reach a wide audience and be tailored to specific populations.

Limitations:

• Reporting may be less detailed, especially on television.
• Messages may be filtered through a reporter or other spokesperson, and may be edited or cut to fit available time.
• Listener/viewer must choose to turn on the TV or radio in order to receive the message.

Requirements:

• Television—visuals, sound bites, staging area.
• Radio—audio sound clips, recorded interviews, recorded PSAs.

The key to using emerging technology is staying on top of what is out there, because “new” media is a relative term and technology doesn’t slow down for anyone.

Ultimately, new communication technology is all about speed. People have an expectation of being engaged and involved and they don’t want to wait for it. They expect that their government agencies will not only be transparent and responsive, but that the response will be customized to the incident and as rapid as the flow of electrons.

This section of the lesson has presented advantages and limitations of different types of media you can use for emergency communications.

Select this link to access a table that summarizes the key points about each type of communication tool.

All emergency communications—regardless of the medium—should conform to general principles of effective communication.

In a crisis, clarity, specificity, and consistency are vitally important. Be sure to:

• Present the information in sequence. Present the reason for the message, the supporting information, and the conclusion.
• Word the message precisely, making every word count.
• Avoid jargon, codes, and acronyms.
• Use common terminology for all personnel and facilities.
• Omit unnecessary details.
• Speak in sync with other related authorities.
• Keep messages consistent across various media.

The remainder of the lesson will focus on strategies for preparing two key types of emergency communications:

• Alerts and warning messages.
• Briefings and public meetings.

Alerts and warnings are products or messages intended to get the attention of the public and to prompt some type of action—whether protective actions or a continued state of alertness.

In practical usage, there is little distinction between the two. In this course, “alert” and “warning” are used interchangeably when referring to messages issued to the public.

Select this link for more information on terminology related to warnings.

Effective alerts and warnings are those that result in members of the public taking recommended actions to protect themselves. To help ensure that messages are effective, they must be issued in a timely manner and should include the following components:

• Specific hazard: What hazard is threatening? What are the potential risks for the community? 
• Location: Where will the impacts occur? Describe the location so those without local knowledge can understand their risk.
• Timeframes: When will it arrive at various locations? How long will the impacts last?
• Warning source: Who is issuing the warning? Identify an official source with public credibility.
• Magnitude: What impact is expected, and how bad is it likely to get?
• Likelihood: How probable is occurrence of the impact?
• Protective behavior: What protective actions should people take and when? If evacuation is called for, where should people go and what should they take with them?

Warning Message Example:

" A dangerous wildfire is moving toward North Haverbrook and is expected to reach the north edge of town by 2 p.m. All persons remaining within the hazard area must evacuate now to a safe location to the west or east. A shelter is now open at Waverly Hills High School gym. Pets are permitted."

Ensure that alert and warning messages are accessible to all audiences by:

• Using clear and simple language.
• Providing information in multiple languages.
• Taking care with text-to-speech conversion. Avoid nonstandard language formats and terminology when using conversion and translation technologies.
• Ensuring that the audio is consistent with the text.
• Providing ample text and audio to explain images and maps.
• Delivering the message through multiple channels to reach all recipients.

One way to help prevent errors or omissions that can occur in moments of urgency is to use templates that are tailored to threats and hazards likely in your warning area.

Using a template that incorporates pre-approved language can reduce delays in issuing alerts and warnings. Another advantage is that, if you need to use a language in addition to English, your templates can be translated in advance.

Select this link to access an example of a warning message template.

Briefings and public meetings enable you to bring a carefully developed message to the media and the public and to build important community relationships in the process. When planning these public events, remember:

• Use news briefings for important events or significant new information—not just to say there is nothing new to report.
• Don’t delay the release of important information for a scheduled briefing—especially if it impacts life and safety. Release it as soon as possible.

When preparing for and conducting a media briefing or public meeting:

• Identify objectives. Know what you want to accomplish.
• Prepare officials and experts in advance. Ensure that they have all the information and are prepared to address the media.
• Prepare a statement and handout materials. Materials should be focused, concise, informative, and cover the basics: who, what, when, where, how, and possibly why.
• Anticipate difficult or sensitive questions. Address rumors and incorrect news statements. Prepare brief, honest responses.
• Make provisions to comply with all legal requirements. Ensure physical and communication access by all.

This lesson presented strategies for communicating effectively in an emergency situation. You should now be able to:

• Indicate how day-to-day communication differs from communication during an incident.
• Identify strategies for communicating effectively in an emergency situation.
• Select the most appropriate form of communication for a given situation.
• Indicate how social media and other communications technology can be used to communicate with members of the community.

This lesson presents strategies for improving your oral presentation skills. At the completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Identify strategies for conducting effective oral presentations.
• Indicate how actively engaging the audience contributes to effective communication.
• Identify your own anxiety about public speaking and take steps to reduce your anxiety.
• Prepare and deliver an oral presentation in a manner that effectively delivers the message and meets the needs of the target audience.
• Identify personal action steps to improve your oral presentation skills.

Audio Transcript, Preparing for Oral Presentations

At the beginning of this course you considered great speeches you have heard and what made them strong and effective. Typically, great speeches:

• Match the message to the audience.
• Match the content and delivery to the purpose.
• Are delivered in a clear and engaging manner.

Matching the message to the audience begins with analyzing the needs of the audience. The more you know about your audience, the better you can connect with them.

What you say and how you say it also need to be consistent with the purpose of the presentation. It is likely that you will make two types of presentations:

Informational presentations

Transmit specific knowledge. Present information directly or through explanation. Feature statistics or supporting research. Present ideas in logical sequence. For example, if asked to provide fire evacuation guidance to the occupants of a residential complex, you would make an informational presentation.

Motivational presentations

Create awareness, change attitudes, or garner support. Use concrete language to communicate abstract points. Use vivid and interesting language. For example, if you are trying to gain community support for a preparedness initiative, you would make a motivational presentation, or one with both informational and motivational elements.

Informational messages can be organized in this order:

1. Introduction - briefly explain the goal, and what points will be covered.
2. Discussion of main points - give details about the main points.  This is the main focus and amount of the information.
3. Conclusion - reiterate the main points briefly, ask questions to ensure understanding.

Motivational presentations are delivered in a different manner than informational presentations. A common approach is to:

1. Open with an attention-getting introduction.
2. Create tension or a need for the message in the audience.
3. Demonstrate that your message can satisfy the need you identified.
4. Use visualization to magnify the appeal.
5. Provide the action step that you want the audience to take.

Tips:

• Use the introduction to establish your credibility by demonstrating your familiarity with the topic.
• Use a vivid illustration to highlight the importance of the need or problem to the listeners.
• Create a need for your solution or idea by highlighting one or two benefits, rather than providing a laundry list.
• Show how your specific ideas will resolve the problem or meet the need you’ve identified.
• Tell the audience how, when, why, and what it can do to carry out your proposal.

Preparing an oral presentation involves planning, development, and writing. Select each step below to learn about the key concepts.

• Plan the presentation.
• Develop the presentation.
• Write the presentation.

The first step toward effective delivery is to develop a delivery strategy:

• How do you wish to appear?
• What tone is appropriate for the subject matter and audience?
• How can you use body language effectively?
• How long should you speak?

The second step is to practice, practice, practice!  Tips:

Effective communication requires practice to get it right. Practice your presentation repeatedly until you are completely familiar with the content. Rehearse the opening until you have it memorized. (This strategy will help you to relax.)

• Become comfortable with the pronunciation and enunciation of your material.
• Present your speech in front of a mirror to check your nonverbal behavior and identify any unconscious mannerisms.
• Stand upright and relaxed. Make eye contact with people in various parts of the room.
• Try to gesture an average of twice in each sentence.
• Turn your torso to face various parts of the audience.
• Use volume, pitch, and emphasis to maximize your message.
• Use pauses for impact before you begin and during speech transitions.

Practice with a watch to check your pacing and ensure that your message fits the allotted time.

Get feedback as you practice

• Ask an observer to provide feedback to refine your delivery.
• If possible, videotape or tape record your practice session.

There may be times when you will prepare an oral presentation for a small audience in a small meeting space—for example, in a room instead of an auditorium. In these circumstances, you may be able to use charts, PowerPoint visuals, or other media to enhance your presentation.

Use of presentation media may be especially effective for audience members who have access and functional needs because it allows them to use multiple senses to take in the information.

It is important to use presentation media effectively so they enhance rather than detract from your presentation.

Interactive presentations, such as media interviews and news conferences, differ from static presentations in that you are less in control of the content and flow, and it is difficult to pre-script them.

On the other hand, these very qualities can add interest and energize both you and the audience. You need to stay on your toes and be ready to respond in a calm, confident, and clear manner.

It is important to plan ahead by anticipating the types of questions that will be asked and practicing how you will respond.

Select this link to access tips for media interviews.
Select this link to access tips for news conferences.

Effective presentation is much more than just presenting your ideas or delivering a speech. It is about skillful communication and relating to the audience (whether a few people or a large gathering).

• Face the audience and maintain an attentive stance.
• Avoid reading to the group. Simple notes can help you avoid reading from a prepared script.
• Come out from behind the lectern, minimizing barriers between you and the audience.
• Don’t stand in a fixed position. Move around to keep the audience engaged and energized. Draw people in by moving toward them. Remember: If you fidget, then everyone will sense your discomfort.
• Make eye contact and avoid talking with your back toward the group.

Mark Twain said, “There are two types of speakers. Those who get nervous and those who are liars.”

Glossophobia, or speech anxiety, is one of the most common phobias affecting about 70% of the population. How do you feel when you learn that you must present a speech?

To analyze your level of speech anxiety, take a few minutes to complete the self-inventory on the next screen.

Some people are anxious speaking in front of others. Symptoms of Speech Anxiety include:

• Tightness in chest
• Dry mouth
• Clammy palms
• Stomach pain or nausea
• Shortness of breath
• Other

Whatever the sources of your anxiety, there are many steps that you can take to reduce nervousness and gain control of your presentation. Most presenters control their nerves by:

• Preparing ahead of time.
• Practicing your presentation until you are comfortable and confident with it.
• Connecting with the audience before starting the presentation.
• Converting the nervousness into positive energy.
• Maintaining a sense of humor.
• Knowing that there is no such thing as a perfect presentation.
• Realizing that audiences want the presenter to succeed.
• Knowing it is okay to pause to gather thoughts.

Instructions:

1. Prepare a briefing or other oral presentation using the provided worksheet. You may choose to use a regular work-related responsibility or event as the basis of your presentation, or you may wish to use this as a practice opportunity. Select this link to access the worksheet.
2. Deliver the presentation. Ask a friend or colleague to observe the presentation and give you feedback using the provided checklist. Select this link to access the observer checklist.
3. Review the observer’s feedback. Identify strengths and needed improvements, and develop strategies for improvement.