Three Federal agencies have contributed to the development of this home study course: the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Department of Transportation (DOT). All three agencies have responsibilities related to the protection of the public from hazards posed by the manufacture, transportation, and disposal of hazardous materials.

The DOT is charged with the development and oversight of the Nation’s transportation policy, including the regulation of interstate hazardous materials transportation. The EPA is the primary agency responsible for protecting our environment, including funding cleanup operations at thousands of abandoned hazardous waste disposal sites and oversight of programs to regulate disposal of hazardous wastes identified by certain legislation. The FEMA is the central point of contact within the Federal government for a wide range of emergency management activities in both peace and war. That responsibility includes the design, delivery, coordination, and monitoring of hazardous materials training in cooperation with the members of the National Response Team (NRT).

On March 1, 2003, the Federal Emergency Management Agency became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). FEMA’s continuing mission within the DHS is to lead the effort to prepare the Nation for all hazards and effectively manage Federal response and recovery efforts following any national incident. FEMA also initiates proactive mitigation activities, trains first responders, and manages the National Flood Insurance Program and the U.S. Fire Administration. FEMA has ten regional offices, and two area offices. Each region serves several States, and regional staff work directly with the States to help plan for disasters, develop mitigation programs, and meet needs when major disasters occur. They have Technical Hazard Specialists to deliver hazardous materials training. Regions also have State training partners to assist in the delivery of other emergency preparedness training courses throughout their regions. You should become familiar with these individuals and attend hazardous materials training programs when they are offered within your State. Such programs will increase your emergency preparedness and professional development in identifying and reporting hazardous materials incidents to appropriate authorities within your community.

The independent study program is one of the delivery channels the Emergency Management Institute (EMI) uses to deploy emergency management training to the general public and to select emergency management audiences.

Go to http://training.fema.gov/is/ for information on these courses.

These independent study courses are geared toward both the general public and persons who have local government responsibilities for emergency management. All courses are available at no charge. Courses include a final examination, and persons who score 75% or better on the examination are issued a certificate of completion by EMI.

If you have questions about these courses, you may call (301) 447-1200; e-mail independent.study@fema.dhs.gov; or write to:

FEMA Independent Study Program
Administration Office
Emergency Management Institute
16825 S. Seton Avenue
Emmitsburg, MD 21727

As hazardous materials and hazardous wastes become more and more commonplace, accumulating in our earth, air, and water, it is vitally important that citizens are well informed about the challenges posed by these substances. American communities are facing policy decisions that can dramatically affect their population’s well being: Should hazardous materials traffic be regulated? What is the community’s role in preparing for the possibility of a serious hazardous materials accident? What should be done with household hazardous wastes? Concerned community members willing to take the time to learn more about such issues can help protect their own health and contribute to their community—for just as surely as there are thorny problems associated with hazardous materials, there are creative minds at work seeking and testing solutions.

• Recognize the dangers posed by hazardous materials;
• List places where hazardous materials are likely to be encountered;
• Identify when a hazard may exist;
• Contact the appropriate persons or agencies to give or receive specific hazardous materials information; and
• Identify procedures to minimize personal and community exposure to hazardous materials.

The course has five units:

Unit 1: Health and Environmental Regulations explains the roles of Federal, State, and local governments in reducing hazardous materials risks, and reviews the key provisions of critical Federal legislation.

Unit 2: Hazardous Materials Identification Systems discusses the two major hazardous materials identification systems currently being used in the United States. It also outlines how communities identify possible targets of opportunity in a terrorist’s use of toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).

Unit 3: Identifying Hazardous Materials provides an overview of locations in which these materials are commonly found and discusses ways of determining what particular chemicals, with what health effects, exist in these locations.

Unit 4: Hazardous Materials and Human Health introduces many of the basic terms used to discuss hazardous materials problems, and explains how hazardous materials enter and move through the body and the environment.

Unit 5: Preparing for Hazardous Materials Incidents shows what local communities can do to increase their preparedness to respond to hazardous materials accidents of any size. It also identifies steps individuals can take to protect themselves in an incident.

How to Complete the Course

You will remember the material best if you do not rush through it. Often there is white space next to the text where you can make notes. (The more you interact with the material, the better you will remember it!) Take a break at the end of each unit and give yourself time to think about the material. Then, go back and take the quiz at the end of the unit, reviewing the relevant material if you missed any questions.

Besides the five units, there is a glossary, a resource section to help you continue learning, and a final examination. The components of each are listed below.

The glossary, located after the final unit, contains definitions of terms related to hazardous materials. The glossary may be consulted while you are reading the units, or may be read separately.

A resource section is included to help you continue learning after you have completed the course. This section features listings of organizations that can supply additional information relevant to course objectives, recommended reading, computer networks accessible to the public, and telephone services that supply information on specific hazardous materials issues.

The final examination will test the knowledge you have gained from the course. You may take the examination online at http://training.fema.gov/is/. Search for the course, and then click on the link for the exam. If your score is 75% or above, a certificate of completion will be emailed to you.

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
INFORMATION CENTER

1-800-HMR-4922
1-800-467- 4922
(202) 366-4488 (Washington, DC)

1. Obtain answers to questions on the Hazardous Materials Regulations 49 CFR Parts 100-185;
2. Receive recent copies of Federal Register publications, copies of DOT exemptions or letters of interpretation
3. Receive copies of training material, such as Chart 12 or information packages;
4. Report violations of the HMR;
5. Leave a voice mail message concerning a question on the HMR (messages will be returned within 24 hours).
6. OHMS Fax On Demand. Now you can access Hazardous Materials Information quickly and easily! A menu of options lets you choose documents to be faxed to your machine (e.g., final rules, DOT forms, letters of clarification, safety notices and more). To reach the Fax On Demand system dial 1-800-467-4922 and select Option 2.

Callers needing assistance on questions relating to the HMR will be forwarded to the HMIC after selecting the correct menu item. Calls to the center are handled on a first call first answered manner through an automatic stacking system. The HMIC is open for direct calls from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm EST, however you may leave a message at any time, or you may email your question to the HMIC. Or you may write to:

Director, Office of Hazardous Materials Standards
U.S. DOT/PHMSA (DHM-10)
400 7th Street S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20590-0001

Transportation Safety Institute
P.O. Box 25082
Oklahoma City, OK 73125-5050

Director's Office
Frank Tupper, Director - DTI-1: (405) 954-3153
E-Mail: Director@tsi.jccbi.gov
Linda Gulley, Associate Director - DTI-2: (405) 954-3153
E-Mail: AssociateDirector@tsi.jccbi.gov
Diana Lopez Story, Executive Officer - DTI-10: (405) 954-6441
E-mail: OperationSupport@tsi.jccbi.gov

Aviation Safety
Christine Lawrence, Manager - DTI-20: (405) 954-9740
E-Mail: AviationSafety@tsi.jccbi.gov

Special Programs
Dee Smith, Manager - DTI-100: (405) 949-0036 x367
E-Mail: SpecialPrograms@tsi.jccbi.gov

Hazardous Materials
Mike Nolan, Manager - DTI-30: (405) 954-4512
E-Mail: HazardousMaterials@tsi.jccbi.gov

Pipeline Safety
Richard Sanders, Manager - DTI-60: (405) 954-7219
E-Mail: PipelineSafety@tsi.jccbi.gov

Highway Safety
Mike Baldwin, Manager - DTI-70: (405) 954-3112
E-Mail: HighwaySafety@tsi.jccbi.gov

National Automotive Sampling System
Bob Romberg Team Coordinator: (405) 954-7212
E-Mail: NASS@tsi.jccbi.gov

Transit Safety & Security
Vacant, Manager - DTI-80: (405) 954-3682
E-Mail: Transit@tsi.jccbi.gov

Coast Guard Container Inspection Training and Assistance Team (CITAT)
Gerard Achenbach, Commander - DTI-120: (405) 954-8983
E-Mail: CITAT@tsi.jccbi.gov

EPA Headquarters
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 272-0167, TTY (202) 272-0165

EPA Regional Offices

IF YOU HAVE WORKPLACE SAFETY AND HEALTH RELATED QUESTIONS:

[By Phone]:
1-800-321-OSHA (6742) {Toll Free U.S.}

[Write To: (required for an Official Agency Response*)]

REGIONAL OFFICES

FEMA HEADQUARTERS
500 C Street S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20472
1-800-621-FEMA

Regional Offices

National Response Center
c/o United States Coast Guard (G-OPF) - Room 2611
2100 2nd Street, Southwest
Washington, DC 20593-0001

Toll Free: 800-424-8802
Direct: 202-267-2675
FAX: 202-267-2165
TDD: 202-267-4477 (Telecommunications Device for the Deaf)

TERRORISM/SUSPICIOUS ACTIVITY

TERRORISM: Any incident related to terrorism or possible terrorist activity requires telephonic notification to the National Response Center. DO NOT SEND AN ON-LINE REPORT! This would include bombings, bomb threats, suspicious letters or packages, and incidents related to the intentional release of chemical/biological/radioactive agents. Our Watch Standers have been trained to ask specific questions for such reports and will immediately pass the information to the proper agencies for response.

SUSPICIOUS ACTIVITY: Any incident, activity or behavior that you deem to be activity of a suspicious nature should be reported to the NRC by calling 1-877-24-WATCH or 1-800-424-8802. Email reports are not an acceptable method for making suspicious activity reports. Examples of suspicious activity would be:

• people appearing to be engaged in surveillance of any kind (picture taking, note taking, shooting video, asking strange questions, etc)
• recovering or tossing items into the water
• unattended vessels or vehicles in unusual locations
• light signals between boats
• unusual diving, night operations
• operations in an area that usually does not have such activity
• fishing or hunting in locations not typically used for those activities
• anchoring in areas not typically used for anchoring
• transfer of people or things between ships or shore that seems unusual
• small planes flying over critical areas
• people attempting to buy or rent fishing or recreational boats/vehicles with cash for short term, undefined use
• anyone operating a vessel in an aggressive manner
• missing fencing or lighting near sensitive locations

Remember-it is the activity or behavior that is suspicious, not a person’s ethnicity.

There are a number of Federal laws that regulate hazardous materials. The following is a brief overview of the major pieces of legislation that comprise our country’s hazardous materials management policies and programs.

There are a number of Federal laws that regulate hazardous materials.

In 1980, Congress passed the Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, known as CERCLA. The bill’s purpose was to fund cleanups and emergency response actions for some of the worst inactive or abandoned hazardous waste sites scattered across the country. A billion dollar revolving trust fund—financed primarily by a tax on certain chemical and petroleum products—was created to pay for Federal and State response actions when hazardous substances pose an existing or potential threat to human health or the environment.

In 1986, this bill was revised and expanded in the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA). The third part of SARA, Title III, is known as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986. This portion of the legislation makes more than 300 “extremely hazardous substances” subject to routine and detailed reporting to designated local, State, and Federal government agencies. It also requires local planning committees to use this information (and other data on local hazards) to create effective plans for hazardous materials emergencies.

The National Contingency Plan is the basis for Federal action to minimize pollution damage from discharges of oil or hazardous substances. In accordance with this law, Federal agencies assist in the development and evaluation of national, regional, and local oil and hazardous substance pollution contingency plans. This coordinated planning enables communities to prevent or lessen the harm that could accompany a hazardous materials release.

Working together as part of the National Response Team (NRT)—composed of 14 Federal agencies—experts publish guidance on emergency response planning and stand ready to assist States in the event of a major chemical emergency. As co-chairs of the NRT, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) play key roles in environmental protection. The two agencies share specific responsibility for waterway protection, EPA having primary responsibility for most inland waters and the USCG handling responsibility for coastal water and some specifically-designated Federal navigable waterways such as Lake Michigan.

The NCP covers how to identify and investigate hazardous waste sites that could potentially pose such a serious threat to public health that the situation would be considered an emergency. It also specifies how to analyze costs and evaluate the best cleanup options, and details roles and responsibilities for Federal, State, and local governments in carrying out these requirements.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act was enacted to assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women; by authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the Act; by assisting and encouraging the States in their efforts to assure safe and healthful working conditions; by providing for research, information, education, and training in the field of occupational safety and health; and for other purposes.

The purpose of this law is to assure, so far as possible, “safe working conditions” to “every working man in the country.” This is accomplished by the issuing of basic safety and health standards, assigning the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) employees to inspect workplaces, and forcing industry to reduce or eliminate job hazards by imposing fines for identified violations.

The CAA was passed by Congress in 1970 and signed into law by President Nixon. This Act is the basic Federal law for controlling toxic air pollution. It requires EPA to keep an up-to-date list of industrial pollutants that are hazardous to human health, and set an emission standard for each “with an ample margin of safety.” Under the law, EPA prepares minimum pollution standards, and States prepare implementation plans showing how these standards will be attained. States issue permits for the release of listed pollutants into the atmosphere, and take samples to evaluate the State’s air quality. Of the 320 toxic air pollutants named in the act, EPA has to date completed regulations governing only 7, in large part because industry protests have resulted in legal precedents requiring costly and lengthy scientific studies to show that a pollutant has harmful effects at a certain level.

The CAA was expanded, with its central public health approach reaffirmed, under Presidents Carter and Bush. The CAA requires EPA to review public health standards for six major air pollutants every 5 years. Under the law, the standards must be set to “protect public health with an adequate margin of safety” and be based only upon a consideration of public health, with cost factors coming into account only during the implementation phase. EPA recently completed the scientific review for five of the six pollutants and has set new, updated standards for only two of these—ozone and particulate matter.

The Safe Drinking Water Act was enacted in 1974, specifically to protect the public water supplies from contamination by mandating water testing, denying Federal funds to projects that threaten critical water supplies, and requiring States to submit plans to protect public wells from contamination.

The law also has a “Right to Know” provision in which the public must be informed if certain contaminants are present in drinking water above Maximum Contamination Levels (MCLs) set by the EPA. MCLs are contaminant-specific, enforceable standards set for contaminants that EPA has determined have an adverse effect on human health above certain levels. MCLs are often used as a basis for developing groundwater protection and cleanup standards at RCRA corrective action sites.

FEMA is responsible for coordinating all civil emergency planning, management, mitigation, and assistance functions of the Federal Government. Under SARA’s Title III, FEMA is the primary Federal agency responsible for planning and related training for hazardous materials emergency management. This authority encompasses accidents at manufacturing, processing, storage, and disposal facilities, as well as hazardous materials in transit by highways, on water, by rail, and by air.

FEMA provides resource information and technical and financial assistance to States for developing emergency plans for hazardous materials accidents and other types of emergencies, and assists State and local governments in hazardous materials training. FEMA also assists States and communities by interpreting Federal planning guidance, providing advice on plan preparation, and reviewing completed plans. FEMA Regional staff are available to provide this support. When emergency exercises are conducted, FEMA Regional officials provide support by reviewing the plans, observing exercises to test the plans, and providing technical evaluation of how well the plans worked.

Finally, FEMA is available to provide additional financial relief in the event of an incident so serious that both local and State funds prove inadequate.

The primary mission of the EPA is to protect and enhance our environment. EPA is the lead agency responsible for carrying out Title III reporting requirements. Under Superfund and other related laws, it is the agency primarily responsible for hazardous waste site operations and Superfund site cleanup activities. EPA also conducts technical and environmental training programs related to hazardous materials, and chairs the 14-agency NRT. At the request of community officials, EPA can provide technical expertise on the full range of environmental contamination issues.

The EPA is responsible for monitoring hazardous waste site operations and cleanup activities, and has the lead responsibility for many Title III activities.

DOE provides the framework for a comprehensive and balanced National energy plan through the coordination and administration of the energy functions of the Federal government. Its primary responsibilities in the hazardous materials arena involve radioactive waste generated by the nuclear weapons program or by nuclear reactors, which supply energy.

DOE provides assistance in the removal and disposal of radioactive contamination, as well as in identifying the source and extent of radioactive releases. In addition, DOE conducts hazardous materials training workshops throughout the country.

DOD manufactures, tests, and discards the full range of hazardous materials. Military installations are also a potential source of expertise on hazardous materials for local governments.

DOD is responsible for maintaining manpower, equipment, and other resources for potential use in military conflict. DOD manufactures, stores, and discards the full range of hazardous materials, and is also one of the Nation’s largest shippers of such materials. The Agency also conducts hazardous materials courses at five military installations, primarily for military personnel responsible for the handling and control of such substances. DOD laboratories and bases can be a source of expertise, equipment, and supplies for use in local chemical emergencies.

The purpose of the Department of Labor is to foster, promote, and develop the welfare of the wage earners of the United States, to improve their working conditions, and to advance their opportunities for profitable employment in carrying out this mission.

OSHA has responsibility for establishing rules and standards to ensure that occupational environments are safe for workers. As part of this function, OSHA regulates employee safety and health at hazardous waste operations, in work environments where hazardous materials are present (primarily chemical industries), or during emergency response to incidents involving hazardous materials.

On October 17, 1986, the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, also known as SARA, was signed into law. The third part of SARA is Title III: the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act. Prior to this law, citizens had little or no legal backing in their attempts to obtain information about toxic releases from facilities in their own communities. As the public and its Congressional representatives became more aware of the increasing use of hazardous materials and the corresponding increase in the number of accidents, pressure grew for better information at the local level.

The single incident that is credited with raising the level of concern to the point that such a law could be passed occurred in Bhopal, India, where a release of methyl isocyanate killed at least 1,700 people and injured thousands more. To help reduce the likelihood that such a tragedy would occur in the United States, and simultaneously increase a local government’s ability to anticipate and plan for such a major emergency if one were to occur, Title III seeks to provide reliable information to those who would be most affected by an accidental release of this kind: the communities located in the immediate area of industrial plants.

As used in SARA, the term “hazardous materials” refers to substances transported, used, and stored at petroleum refineries and natural gas facilities; hazardous chemicals such as PCBs and trichloroethylene (dry cleaning chemicals); acutely toxic chemicals; and fumes and dust from metals such as arsenic, lead, and cadmium. For the first time, the law even requires the agricultural industry to report production, use, storage, or release of certain chemicals. EPA maintains an updated list that includes more than 300 extremely hazardous substances (EHS), selected on the basis of their ability to pose an immediate threat to life and health. These EHS chemicals have been involved in some of the most serious accidents that have occurred in the United States to date.

Title III establishes requirements for Federal, State, and local governments and industry regarding local emergency planning and reporting on hazardous materials. It also provides a comprehensive framework within which Federal, State, and local governments can work together with industry to reduce risks.

Title III requires that the governor of each State designate a State Emergency Response Commission (SERC). This commission generally includes representatives of public agencies and departments with expertise in environmental issues, natural resources, emergency services, public health, occupational safety, and transportation. Various public and private sector groups and associations with an interest in Title III issues may also be included in the State commission.

The SERC designates local emergency planning districts and appoints Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPCs) within each of these districts. The SERC is responsible for supervising and coordinating the activities of the LEPCs, for establishing procedures for receiving and processing public requests for information collected under other sections of Title III, and for reviewing plans generated by the LEPCs.

The LEPC’s primary responsibility is to develop a local emergency response plan.

Local emergency response plan

SERC is responsible for coordinating emergency plans among districts

EPA suggests that LEPCs test their plans to ensure effectiveness

Community actively involved in the emergency planning process

Strategies for preventing or mitigating chemical emergencies

In developing their plans, local committees analyze local risks and evaluate resources available to their area that could help them to prepare for and respond to a hazardous materials accident. A progressive LEPC may also consider strategies for preventing or mitigating chemical emergencies—that is, identifying ways to keep emergencies from happening, or of making their consequences less severe.

Examples of this include the installation of sprinklers in a chemical plant or the routing of certain hazardous materials to be carried away from residential areas.

The contingency plan generated by the LEPC must include a list of hazardous materials facilities and the routes they use to transport listed materials, emergency response procedures, and evacuation plans. It is reviewed by the SERC and updated annually by the LEPC. Emergency plans must focus on the list of extremely hazardous substances published by the EPA, but they are not limited to this list. Any facility that uses these substances in excess of specified “threshold” quantities is subject to emergency planning requirements.

This section of Title III requires an industry to notify the LEPC, the State, and the National Response Center if there is a release of a listed hazardous substance that exceeds a certain quantity, as specified in the November 17, 1986, issue of the Federal Register.

Title III of SARA provides a framework for Federal, State, and local governments to work with industry to reduce hazardous materials risks and to develop comprehensive emergency response plans.

The emergency notification must include the name of the chemical released, the quantity involved, how and into what it was released, and the health risks from exposure. This section of Title III also requires the industry to submit reports to the State and LEPC after the event that explains what actions were taken to control the release, and to provide more data on health risks and any medical attention required for victims.

This part of the law will allow communities to learn if significant releases from hazardous materials facilities are occurring or are likely to occur, and whether state-of-the-art technology is being used by the plants to protect nearby communities from unnecessary adverse health effects.

This is a particularly important part of Title III, because it grants citizens the right to obtain information on hazardous materials in their community. Environmental, health, and labor groups have worked hard for passage of this law.

This section of Title III requires facilities to submit either a form called a Safety Data Sheet (SDS) or lists of certain hazardous chemicals on sites in amounts over threshold quantities to the LEPC, the SERC, and the local fire department. SDS formats vary considerably among providers, but all include vital information about the properties and effects of the hazardous material involved. Industry facilities must also submit inventories of the amounts and locations of these chemicals in their plants. OSHA and EPA rules specify which chemicals must be reported and at what quantity.

This section of Title III requires hazardous materials facilities to inform the public about routine, day-to-day releases of chemicals. The intent is to provide information on the extent of the cumulative toxic chemical burden on the environment.

More than 300 chemicals listed by EPA must be reported if they are emitted regularly. Facilities must submit toxic chemical release forms for these chemicals. This requirement applies to facilities that have 10 or more full-time employees and that are in certain types of specified industries. Facilities that use less than 10,000 pounds of a listed chemical each year are currently exempted.

Citizens should have a basic awareness of the procedures spelled out in their local plans for protecting public safety in the event of a hazardous materials incident. How would a citizen be told that an incident had occurred, for example? Or if they were living near an area where an incident is considered more probable than at other locations?

Under Title III, each State governor must appoint a SERC. These commissions provide leadership to ensure that an emergency planning and implementation structure is developed at the local level, and review plans developed by communities. In addition, the SERCs provide training and technical assistance to local communities. In the case of an emergency which is too expensive for a local community to handle, the State may contribute resources. In general, the burden of funding for training and information management for Title III recordkeeping falls at the State and local level.

States may, of course, elect to exceed Federal requirements for hazardous materials management. For example, more than 30 States have enacted Right-to-Know laws similar to the Federal one, some of which cover more chemicals and more potentially hazardous situations.

Federal controls on operating hazardous materials waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities contain many exceptions. Some States have added specific requirements to address these “loopholes” and increase their protection from particular hazards. For example, California prohibits discharge from an underground injection well if it is within one-half mile of a drinking water supply. States have broad authority to control how hazardous materials are stored, used, transported, and disposed of within their borders. For instance, States establish zoning control policies that determine where chemical plants may be located, and control site locations for hazardous waste facilities and landfills. Pennsylvania and Connecticut currently have laws that deny permits to companies found in violation of environmental protection laws. Regulating transportation of hazardous materials within State borders is also a State responsibility.

Local communities play a key role in the system set up by Congress under Title III to inform and protect citizens from hazardous materials. Local communities, represented by LEPCs, are responsible for developing an emergency plan for disasters involving hazardous substances. This includes identifying the resources that would be available in an emergency (such as trained personnel and specialized equipment) and ensuring planning coordination among responding groups. The LEPC also collects and stores information from hazardous materials facilities, and makes that information available to the public.

Local officials have the lead role in responding to hazardous materials emergencies; usually, management of incidents is the specific responsibility of the local fire department. Communities also regulate the disposal of hazardous waste and inspect hazardous materials storage areas for violations of local codes. Many communities also regulate hazardous materials traffic through specific zoning requirements.

Any person in charge of a vessel or an offshore or an onshore facility shall, as soon as he or she has knowledge of any release (other than a Federally permitted release or application of a pesticide) of a hazardous substance from such vessel or facility in a quantity equal to or exceeding the reportable quantity determined by the EPA in any 24-hour period, immediately notify the National Response Center at (800) 424-8802, in Washington, DC, and the LEPC and the SERC of such release.

The Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) has set up a voluntary, industry-wide Community Awareness and Emergency Response Program (CAER). This program encourages plant managers to listen to community concerns, participate in planning, and explain their plant’s operations and policies. By working with the community to ensure safe handling, storage, transportation, and disposal of dangerous chemicals, industry can protect itself, as well as the public, from the high costs of chemical accidents.

Hazardous materials are frequently stored and transported in large quantities. An accidental release of these materials presents a potential danger to the public and the environment. Such an incident can be managed more expeditiously when the hazardous materials are specifically identified and characterized. Unfortunately, the contents of storage tanks and trucks may not be specifically or properly identified. Records or shipping papers may be inaccessible. Even with such information, an experienced person is needed to define the hazards and the gravity of the situation.

The immediate need for information concerning a hazardous material during an incident is vital. Therefore, two hazardous materials identification systems have been developed.

Both systems help first responders to deal with the hazardous materials present quickly and safely. Both were devised for personnel with no real training in chemistry.

• The first is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704 System, which is used on storage tanks and smaller containers (fixed facilities).
• The second system is used exclusively on containers and tanks transported in interstate commerce. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) is responsible for this system. Information concerning chemical properties and hazards in transport is displayed by way of placards and labels. The DOT regulation covering this system is the Code of Federal Regulations 49 (CFR 49).

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has devised a voluntary marking system to alert firefighters to the characteristics of hazardous materials stored in stationary tanks and facilities. This system, known as NFPA 704, can also assist citizens visiting a site in identifying the hazard presented by the stored substance. Use of the system is voluntary, unless specified by local codes.

NFPA 704 is a standardized system, which uses numbers and colors on a sign to indicate the basic hazards of a specific material being stored in large containers. Health, flammability, reactivity, and special hazards are identified and rated on a scale of 4 to 0 depending on the degree of hazard presented by the material (Figure 2-1).

The rating of individual chemicals can be found in the NFPA “Guide to Hazardous Materials.” Other references such as the National Safety Council’s “Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene” contain the NFPA ratings for specific materials. Such information can be used not only during an emergency, but also when long-term remedial activities require extensive evaluation.

The NFPA 704 system for hazardous materials was devised to provide at-a-glance information to response personnel on how a substance could be expected to react in the event of an emergency.

The NFPA 704 label is diamond-shaped, and is divided into four parts, or quadrants.

The left quadrant is blue, and contains a numerical rating of the substance’s health hazard. Ratings are made on a scale of 4 to 0, with a rating of 4 indicating a severe hazard that a very short exposure could cause serious injury or death. A zero, or no code at all in this quarter, means that no unusual hazard would result from the exposure.

The top quadrant of the NFPA symbol contains the substance’s fire hazard rating. As you might expect, this quadrant is red. Again, number codes in this quadrant range from 4 to 0, with 3 representing a serious fire hazard. See Figure 2-1.

The NFPA label’s right quadrant, colored yellow, indicates the substance’s likelihood to explode or react. As with the health and fire hazard quadrants, ratings from 4 to 0 are used to indicate the degree of hazard. If a 2 appears in this section, the chemical is moderately unstable, and even under NORMAL conditions may explode or react violently. A zero in this quadrant indicates that the material is considered to be stable even in the event of a fire.

It is important to remember that the system is chemical-specific. No chemical identification system can accurately assess the synergistic effects of one chemical combining with another, or the possible effects of combining unknown amounts of several chemicals.

The Department of Transportation (DOT), in cooperation with the United Nations, has devised an international classification system, which tags hazardous materials in transit with color-coded, symbolic warning placards.

Hazardous materials are transported daily in the United States by air, water, road, rail, and pipeline. Of the 1.5 billion tons of hazardous materials transported in this country each year, more than half move by tankers along the Nation’s highways.

Highway transport of hazardous materials is so common that it is doubtful that any area of the country could be considered free of the threat of an accident. Sound State and local policies to regulate this transportation safely, and to ensure that firefighters and others who would respond to an incident are well prepared, are essential.

The DOT’s Hazardous Materials Transportation Administration regulates more than 1,700 hazardous materials. The regulation requires labels on small containers and placards on tanks and trailers (Figure 2-3). The placards and labels indicate the most serious hazard presented by the cargo being transported.

This code, called a North American (NA) or United Nations (UN) ID number, is located on placards or panels placed on all four sides of the cargo tank or rail car. If you are concerned about what sort of hazardous materials are passing through your community, you can use these UN ID numbers to categorize the transport vehicles by load. Interpretations of these codes are found in DOT’s Emergency Response Guidebook, which may be obtained through DOT. You can also contact your LEPC to determine the stationary locations of chemicals in your area, and ask the companies involved regarding the origination and destination of chemicals stored there.

The shipping document provides vital information when responding to a hazardous materials/dangerous goods incident. The shipping document contains information needed to identify the materials involved. Use this information to initiate protective actions for your own safety and the safety of the public. The shipping document contains the proper shipping name, the hazard class or division of the material(s), ID number and, where appropriate, the Packing Group number. In addition, there must be information available that describes the hazards of the material that can be used in the mitigation of an incident. The information must be entered on or be with the shipping document. See Figure 2-4 on the next page.

This requirement may be satisfied by attaching a guide from the ERG to the shipping document, or by having the entire guidebook available for ready reference. Shipping documents are required for most dangerous goods in transportation. Shipping documents are kept in the cab of the motor vehicle, in the possession of the train crewmember, in a holder on the bridge of a vessel, or in the possession of the aircraft’s captain.

The “initial response phase” is that period following arrival at the scene of an incident during which the presence and/or identification of dangerous goods is confirmed, protective actions and area securement are initiated, and assistance of qualified personnel is requested. It is not intended to provide information on the physical or chemical properties of dangerous goods.

The ERG is designed to assist responders in making initial decisions upon arriving at the scene of a dangerous goods incident. It should not be considered as a substitute for emergency response training, knowledge, or sound judgment. ERG does not address all possible circumstances that may be associated with a dangerous goods incident. It is primarily designed for use at a dangerous goods incident occurring on a highway or railroad. Be mindful that there may be limited value in its application at fixed facility locations.

ERG incorporates dangerous goods lists from the most recent United Nations recommendations as well as from other international and national regulations. Explosives are not listed individually by either proper shipping name or ID Number. They do, however, appear under the general heading “Explosives” on the first page of the ID Number index (yellow-bordered pages) and alphabetically in the Name of Material index (blue-bordered pages). Also, the letter “P” following the guide number in the yellow-bordered and blue-bordered pages identifies those materials which present a polymerization hazard under certain conditions, for example: Acrolein, stabilized 131P.

First responders at the scene of a dangerous goods or HazMat incident should seek additional specific information about any material in question as soon as possible. The information received by contacting the appropriate emergency response agency, the emergency response number on the shipping document, or by consulting the information on or accompanying the shipping document, may be more specific and accurate than this guidebook in providing guidance for the materials involved.

BECOME FAMILIAR WITH THIS GUIDEBOOK BEFORE USING IT DURING AN EMERGENCY! In the U.S., according to the requirements of the U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA, 29 CFR 1910.120), and regulations issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 40 CFR Part 311), first responders must be trained regarding the use of this ERG. The ERG can be obtained from the DOT for “first responders” or from private vendors for less than $4.00 a copy.

Most transportation accidents involve flammable or combustible liquids (hazard class 3). These materials are also the most transported by volume. They are substances that have low flash points, and include the frequently transported fuel, gasoline. The flash point of a liquid is the point at which sufficient vapor is produced to cause it to flash in the presence of an ignition source. The lower the flash point, the more volatile the substance.

The second most frequent type of incident involves corrosives (hazard class 8), defined by DOT as “any liquid or solid that can destroy human skin tissue, or any liquid that has a severe corrosion rate on steel.” This class includes acids (such as sulfuric acid, used in chemical processing; and nitric acid, commonly used in the manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, and synthetic fibers) and bases (such as sodium hydroxide, used to purify petroleum products and in the manufacture of soap, pulp, and paper).

The term “toxic industrial chemical” refers to a variety of chemicals used by industry in various processes, created by industry for various purposes, or released to the soil, to water, or to the air by industry as byproducts of either. Any chemical can be toxic or harmful in some dose, and the most dangerous of TICs are those that have harmful effects in relatively low doses when in air or in contact with skin or eyes.

The potential exists for first responders and surrounding populations located downwind or near such an industry to be exposed to levels that may impact their health. (See Figure 2-7 below.) Toxic industrial chemicals (TIC) may pose a high risk when they are stored in large quantities in one location. An act of sabotage or an accident can result in a large release of liquids, which could volatize and be breathed in by those nearby, or travel some distance downwind. An example would be a release of chlorine gas from a large tank into the surrounding air. Such a release could cause injuries and deaths into the thousands.

Excellent data on rail traffic can be obtained from the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) and the individual railway lines serving your area. Many individual rail lines can provide detailed information on the hazardous materials shipments in your area.

In addition, State regulatory agencies can tell you which hazardous materials travel most frequently by rail in your State.

Phosgene (CG) and chlorine (CL) are lung-damaging agents. They are the first chemical warfare agents (CWA) used and are also classified as TICs. They are shipped via rail cars and tanker trucks daily throughout the United States. Phosgene and chlorine cause irritation of the bronchi, trachea, larynx, pharynx, and nose, and may contribute to the sensation of choking. Initial symptoms include eye irritation, burning, pulmonary irritation, running nose (rhinorrhea), cough, dyspnea, chest tightness, reddening of the skin (erythema), and lung damage (pulmonary edema).

Decontaminate (remove clothing and wash your entire body with soap and water) and do not exert yourself if you have been exposed to one of these agents.

The Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) contains data on shipments by domestic establishments in manufacturing, wholesale, mining, and selected other industries. The U.S. Census Bureau, in partnership with the Bureau of Transportation Statistics of the U.S. Department of Transportation, conducts the CFS as part of the Economic Census. This information may be obtained from your LEPC. They are required to keep records of what materials are transported through their communities on a regular basis so as to plan for HazMat incidents and accidents.

Verify the date that the study was completed. Work with the LEPC to update it, if necessary. Fixed facilities receive hazardous materials by highway, ship, and rail. It is important to look at the transportation routes, number of shipments, and quantities of chemicals carried in or near your jurisdiction. DOT also requires that these transporters develop and implement Security Plans that address security risks related to the transportation of hazardous materials in commerce in accordance with 49 CFR 172.800.

Knowing the kind of hazardous materials being shipped and their routes through your community can provide the information your LEPC needs to conduct hazard vulnerability assessments (HVA).

For more detailed information regarding CFS, you should visit the Bureau of Transportation Statistics of the U.S. Department of Transportation website: http://www.bts.gov.

The transportation of hazardous materials poses many challenges to the DOT, the public, and responders during a HazMat incident. The need for information regarding the product is essential for the safety of the responders and the public. As discussed, an accidental release of these materials presents a potential danger to the public and the environment. Such an incident can be managed more expeditiously when the hazardous materials are specifically identified and characterized.

The immediate need for information concerning a hazardous material during an incident is vital. Therefore, two hazardous materials identification systems have been developed.

The first system is the NFPA’s 704 System, which provides immediate information on chemical hazards during a response to fixed facilities by indicating the product’s health, fire, reactivity, and special hazards. This information is necessary for firefighters and HazMat responders to quickly assess the hazards posed by the materials so as to properly protect themselves from health and physical hazards.

The second system is the DOT’s System for identifying, marking, labeling, and placarding HazMat during the transportation of these materials. The DOT systems can warn first responders of the worst potential hazards posed by these materials being shipped on our Nation’s highways, railways, waterways, and by air. The nine hazard classes (several with divisions) are designed to break down more specifically the hazards posed by these materials in their various hazard classes.

Both systems help first responders to deal with hazardous materials quickly and safely. Both were devised for personnel with no real training in chemistry. As a citizen who may become involved in a HazMat incident, it is important for you to know the various hazard classes and what steps you should take to protect yourself and your family from their hazards.

Next, you should also know how to identify a possible terrorist’s use of a chemical and biological agent. There are specific warning signs for both kinds of attacks. The informed citizen is on the watch for these signs and knows how to contact his/her local law enforcement officials when they are evident. You should now be more aware of possible target locations, which may involve toxic industrial chemicals (TICs): refineries, parked rail cars, and tanker trucks carrying flammable, corrosive, and poisonous materials.

The ability to detect a hazard and take corrective action can save lives. In Roseburg, Oregon, a number of years ago, several people observed a truck with an “explosives” placard on it parked by a lumberyard. Later that night, a fire broke out in a dumpster in the lumberyard, igniting the explosives. Eighteen city blocks were destroyed; 13 people were killed, and 125 others were injured. Had someone recognized that this location was a questionable one for a truck with this placard and called the police or fire department, this disaster could have been averted.

Hazardous waste sites knowingly or unknowingly affect thousands of communities across the country.

Sometimes there are sensory clues that indicate the presence of hazardous materials. However, sensory clues are the least dependable and potentially the most dangerous method of identification. Many materials do not have such warning signals as smell or taste. If you notice that an area has a terrible smell, your eyes water, your skin is irritated, or you begin to cough or feel nauseous, leave immediately and telephone your local police or fire department. If you encounter a suspicious substance, do not handle it yourself. You might only add to the problem.

Sometimes no sign reveals that hazardous chemicals exist beneath the surface of the ground, but occasionally unusual circumstances suggest their presence. Water that has an oily appearance, unusual algae growth, or white froth may be contaminated. Discolored soil, bare spots in the ground where vegetation has died off, dead animals, and the presence of metal drums or other specially designed containers also signal a potential problem. Should you ever actually see someone dumping what appears to be a hazardous material in a place not designed to receive it, note the identifying features of the person and vehicle and call the police immediately. “Midnight dumping,” whether by individuals or corporations, is a growing threat to public health that requires prompt attention.

Some State and local areas offer programs to help the public identify hazardous materials problems. The New Jersey Attorney General’s Office, for example, has a program to sensitize people to evidence of illegal waste disposal. You may wish to inquire about similar programs in your area.

Your LEPC should be able to give you precise information about where reportable quantities of extremely hazardous materials are stored or released from fixed sites in your community. (Or, you can use the Toxic Release Inventory database to find this out for yourself.) Remember, however, that all the hazardous materials that might pose a problem may not be known to the LEPC. Hazardous materials of a type not on the list or stored at levels just below the reportable quantity may still cause a serious incident. Undocumented waste sites or underground storage tanks may exist, or large quantities of toxic materials may be regularly transported through your community.

In identifying where hazardous materials are found in your community, consider the five phases of a hazardous material’s “life”—production, transportation, storage, use, and disposal. At each phase, the possibility exists either for controlled, careful use or for shortsighted mismanagement.

In addition to the LEPC, your local police and fire departments should maintain specific information on industries in your community that use, store, or generate hazardous materials. Your local codes are critical elements in protecting community health, for they determine what handling, reporting, and emergency preparedness practices are considered “safe.” It is usually the local fire department’s role to inspect facilities to ensure code compliance. A fire department with a strong prevention emphasis may require businesses to document a hazardous materials management plan that indicates how materials are stored, how compatible substances are separated, where they are disposed of, and other pertinent information. Of particular interest is the existence of underground storage tanks, which can present a significant groundwater contamination hazard. (Old tanks are often overlooked in inspections or not known to exist.) Small volunteer fire departments often lack the personnel and skills required to inspect and maintain records on hazardous materials stored locally; some train citizen volunteers to assist them in these tasks.

The likelihood of the accidental release of a toxic substance from a fixed site such as a factory can be prevented or minimized by regular local inspections of facilities to ensure compliance with hazardous materials storage and handling regulations. Should a release occur, the cloud would contain areas of greater and lesser concentration.

At the local level, citizens can often express their concern about a local industry’s safe manufacture and storage of hazardous materials by conducting a neighborhood inspection. If approached in an atmosphere of cooperation and concern, businesses may respond positively, for they have a great deal to gain by being “good neighbors.” Wherever possible, the inspection team should be accompanied by an industrial hygienist or specialist trained in industrial health and safety issues. In one such neighborhood inspection in Massachusetts, a potentially dangerous situation was noted where hundreds of chemicals were stored in alphabetical order. As a result of the inspection, the storage system was altered to separate chemicals that could react with one another. The discovery of this problem may well have prevented a serious accident in which neighborhood residents could have been injured or killed.

Hazardous materials are common in the modern workplace, and it is clearly important that workers know when they are handling these materials to ensure adequate protection and compliance with the proper safety procedures. Fortunately, the Hazard Communication Standard created by OSHA requires that employers who use hazardous substances must make SDSs available for employee use and reference, and must provide appropriate warning labels on containers of hazardous substances within the facility.

The manufacturer or distributor of a hazardous substance usually prepares the SDS. SDS forms are found in a wide variety of formats, but regardless of the format, they must contain certain key information for employee reference. In many cases, more information is provided on the SDS than is required by law. The Hazard Communication Standard requires that the following categories of information be written in English on a SDS form. (A sample SDS is found at the end of this unit; refer to it when reading this section.)

This category features required information on the identity of the material as given on the product label. If the material is a single hazardous substance, its chemical and any common names that it is known by must be given. If the material is a mixture, which has been tested as a whole to determine its hazards, the chemical and common name(s) of the ingredients, which contribute to these known hazards, will be listed. If the product is a mixture and has not been tested as a whole, the hazardous ingredients which comprise 1% or greater of the mixture must be given. If the hazardous ingredient is a carcinogen, those contents which comprise greater than 0.1% must be listed.

A SDS provides important information on a substance’s composition, potential hazards, and specific first aid procedures required in the event of an emergency.

An example of this information can be found in Section I of the sample SDS at the end of this unit. This SDS is for hydrofluoric acid—a mixture of hydrogen fluoride gas in water, whose properties vary with its concentration.

This category includes the physical and chemical characteristics of the hazardous substance—such as whether it is a liquid, gas, or solid, and data pertaining to characteristics such as vapor pressure and flash point.

The physical data may provide information on how the product will act under a variety of temperatures and conditions. You may learn from this category of information if the material has an odor (and at what level the odor becomes noticeable), the color of the material, and other items about the material’s behavior.

This information can be found in Sections III, IV, and VI of the sample SDS at the end of this unit.

The physical hazards of the material must be noted on the SDS, including the potential for fire, explosions, or reactions, and the conditions under which they may occur. The recommended extinguishing media (water, foam, dry chemical, carbon dioxide, graphite, etc.) for fires can be found here—this information is of great value to community emergency responders.

Some chemicals are stable by nature—that is, they are unlikely to undergo a chemical reaction or change that may result in a dangerous situation, such as an explosion, fire, or toxic release. On the other hand, some chemicals are unstable and are likely to react either alone or in combination with other chemicals and substances. This knowledge can be of great value when selecting storage locations for the product.

This information can be found in Sections IV and V of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

The health hazards of the hazardous substance must be given, including the signs and symptoms of exposure (such as a rash or burning of the eyes and throat) and any medical conditions which are generally recognized as being aggravated by exposure to the material. For example, people with respiratory problems should avoid the inhalation of solvent vapors from paint since these vapors may bring on breathing difficulties.

This information can be found in Section VI of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

Potential routes of entry into the body for a hazardous substance must be noted on its SDS. For example, our sample SDS indicates that the routes of exposure for hydrofluoric acid include eye contact, skin contact, inhalation, and ingestion.

This information can be found in Section VI of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

The OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL), Threshold Limit Value (TLV), and any other exposure limit recommended by the manufacturer, distributor, or employer preparing the SDS must be given if such values are available.

If such values are listed, they may indicate the maximum exposure a worker should have to the substance during an 8-hour working day, as expressed in parts per million (ppm) in air. The PEL is set by OSHA and is a mandated exposure level. However, some PELs have not been updated recently and a number of employers follow exposure limits based on TLVs.

The TLV is the recommended level set by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). TLVs are advisory guidelines that are revised each year as more information becomes available for different chemicals. TLVs are airborne concentrations of hazardous substances and their values vary from one substance to another.

This information can be found in Section II of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

If the material is listed in the National Toxicology Program (NTP) Annual Report on Carcinogens or has been found to be a potential carcinogen by OSHA or the International Agency for Research on Cancer, this information must be noted on the SDS.

The product used for the sample SDS at the end of this unit is not a carcinogen. Had it been, this information might have been found in Sections II or VII.

This category of required information includes any generally applicable precautions for safe handling and use of the product which are known to the preparer of the SDS, including appropriate hygienic practices, protective measures during repair and maintenance of contaminated equipment, and procedures for spills and leaks of the material.

This information can be found in Section VII of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

Any generally applicable control measures which are known to the preparer of the SDS, such as appropriate engineering controls, work practices, or personal protective equipment (PPE) that is needed to safely handle the material, are included in this category.

This information can be found in Section IX of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

The first aid procedures that are to be used on a person who is exposed to the product must be listed for the various routes of exposure and noted on the SDS.

On some SDS forms, this category may be expanded to include procedures that should be followed by medical authorities treating those who have been exposed to the material. In all cases of suspected overexposure, medical advice should be sought.

This information can be found in Section VI of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

The date that the SDS was prepared, and the date that the information was last updated, if applicable, must be noted on the SDS.

This lets you know exactly how current an SDS is. Some SDS forms may be updated once or twice a year, while others, such as those for steel, do not require frequent updating. A call to the manufacturer or supplier can determine if you have the most recent update of the SDS form that is available.

This information can be found in the header of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

The name, address, and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer or responsible party who prepared the SDS and can provide additional information on the hazardous chemicals and appropriate emergency procedures to be followed, if necessary, must be listed on the form.

This information can be found in the header of the sample SDS form at the end of this unit.

If no relevant information can be located for a required category, the SDS will be marked to indicate that no applicable information has been found for that entry.

Hazardous waste sites affect thousands of communities across the country. These include abandoned dumpsites, municipal landfills, industrial ponds, storage piles, military base waste sites, and similarly designated areas. Sites that are inactive (not receiving hazardous waste) are generally listed and ranked for cleanup under the Federal Superfund legislation or State cleanup programs, while active sites are regulated under RCRA.

Only the most dangerous sites are eligible for Superfund, which ranks qualified sites on the National Priorities List (NPL). A site is placed on the NPL after a preliminary assessment and a more thorough site investigation demonstrate that a potentially serious health threat exists. While approximately 22,000 hazardous waste sites are identified in EPA’s inclusive Emergency Response and Remedial Information System (ERRIS), less than 1% of this number is included on the NPL.

A score assigned to the site by the State and reviewed by EPA usually determines the NPL ranking. The score reflects the severity of the contamination, and the vulnerability of residents and the environment to damage from any of the pathways of exposure. Careful testing is required to establish concentrations of pollutants at various points.

State and local officials have been taking an active role in the hazardous waste discovery process. Many local officials have actively sought out these sites with the aid of local citizens. Ideally, the “responsible party” who left the waste assists in cleanup, but in some cases, the polluting company no longer exists or responsibility cannot be proven. The State or local area may be left with extremely large cleanup costs in such cases—which is why prevention of poor waste disposal practices is by far the best option.

Even rural areas face hazardous materials problems. In addition to the ever-present possibility of a hazardous materials transportation accident, or storage problems associated with small businesses such as agricultural chemical dealers, threats exist which are unique to the rural environment.

Since wells are a primary water supply in most rural areas, a major concern is the introduction of contaminants into groundwater. A serious, and fortunately infrequent, hazard is that of flammable gas in wells. Small volumes of naturally occurring methane gas can enter wells that are drilled into carbonate or shale rock, causing explosions and fire. Venting the wellhead and other areas of the house where gas can be trapped may lessen this hazard. Another source of concern is the common farming practice of applying fertilizers and pesticides to crops next to a barnyard or farmyard, where many can be drawn into a well—a problem that can be reduced by decreasing the use of pesticides in that general area.

Groundwater contamination is a major concern in rural areas, which must deal with pollutants such as livestock waste and pesticide runoff in addition to the problems found in more heavily populated environments.

Farmers sometimes use sewage sludge as a source of plant nutrients. However, some industrial sludge contains heavy metals that may be toxic to crops, humans, and other animals. Because tolerance levels for heavy metals depend on the soil’s physical and chemical characteristics, farmers should work with a professional to determine their soil’s tolerance and stay within its limits.

Phosphate fertilizer can also cause problems. If you notice that fish are dying in an area where phosphates can reach the water from farm runoff, it is possible that phosphates are promoting the growth of algae and other aquatic plants that deplete oxygen. Reduced use of phosphates and runoff control can reduce this problem. Similarly, excessive use of nitrogen can contaminate groundwater and surface water, particularly when fertilizer is applied far in advance of the crop or to improve poor soils.

Accidents involving excessive use of pesticides have resulted in fish kills, human illness, and even death. Pesticides have been known to contaminate groundwater, particularly in very permeable soils or at sinkholes in limestone; once these substances are introduced into the groundwater supply, they can also be carried to surface waters. Developing other pest control procedures to reduce pesticide use and avoiding applications to permeable soils can reduce contamination. Protective clothing is also important whenever pesticides are applied.

Agricultural runoff can carry soil particles, pesticides, bacteria, and other pollutants directly into estuaries and coastal waters, or into rivers that flow into these waters. Control of runoff by each farmer is extremely important in limiting the spread of harmful products.

It is not possible to rely on the senses to detect the presence of hazardous materials—such clues as pungent odors or a feeling of nausea may or may not be present. (Radon, the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas.) To find out whether you are exposed to hazardous materials is, therefore, a matter of research. Federal laws require disclosure and identification of hazardous materials in specific circumstances. For example, hazardous materials shipments crossing State lines, and many hazardous materials used in the workplace, must be labeled. For such substances a SDS is often available that provides detailed information on the material’s attributes and required self-protection. State laws often “close loopholes” in Federal legislation (such as transportation of hazardous materials within State lines) to provide further citizen protection.

To identify the presence of hazardous materials in your community, consider all five phases of the material’s “life”—production, transportation, storage, use, and disposal. Thoughtful policies are needed at each phase to protect local residents from unnecessary health risks.

In the years since World War II, new technologies have developed at a stunning pace. Nearly every business in our consumer society has grown accustomed to daily use of manufactured products that offer us increased convenience and efficiency. Hazardous materials or chemicals are used in every industry today in some form or another.

This year alone, more than 1,000 new synthetic chemicals will be manufactured for use in the chemical industry within the United States. Some will require careful handling during manufacture, transport, storage, use, and disposal in order to avoid causing harm to individual users and handlers, other living things, and the environment.

Many of these chemicals are not “biodegradable” (that is, they are able to be broken down into their components by microorganisms); for such chemicals in particular, the potential for adverse health effects can continue for decades or even centuries.

We are becoming increasingly aware of the limited space that our planet has to offer for the disposal of toxic products. Prior to release reporting, the EPA noted that industry manufacturers alone in one year discharged into the environment (air, land, and water) about seven billion pounds of toxic substances. Numerous small businesses, such as printing industries and vehicle maintenance shops, also released toxic chemicals not included in these estimates. Few communities are eager to have hazardous waste deposited in their “backyard.” A lone barge loaded with garbage made headlines that same year as it sailed the seas seeking a place to leave its unwanted cargo. It seemed an apt expression of our country’s dilemma.

While hazardous materials attract us by promising to make our lives easier, they often confront us with complex problems—many of which have no easy or immediate solutions.

Naturally occurring toxic substances can also pose problems. For example, ponds near a wildlife refuge in California became contaminated by selenium, an element commonly found in alkaline desert soil. The high level of selenium was the result of irrigation methods used at nearby farms. Water removed the selenium from the soil, dissolved it, and carried enough of the element to non-farm portions of the refuge to threaten wildlife. As waterfowl ingested (ate) the selenium, deformities were found more frequently in developing embryos. Naturally occurring substances have sometimes led to expensive cleanup operations comparable to those required for human-created hazardous waste.

Often, however, problems posed by hazardous materials are less clear-cut. Many of the effects attributed to toxic substances, such as certain types of cancer, have multiple causes. In any single case of illness or death, it is difficult to point the finger at a specific instance of exposure to a particular hazardous material. In fact, one study found traces of more than 200 industrial chemicals and pesticides in members of an American sample group. Determining at what exposure level each of these common substances becomes harmful to human health is not only a scientific question but also a social, political, and economic issue.

Our legal system seeks to control these materials at every level of government—Federal, State, and local—but it is hampered by funding limitations, debates over emerging technology, lack of definitive research in certain areas, and competing rights and interests. Laws and regulations at all three levels of government address various aspects of the hazardous materials problem by specifying how chemicals must be stored, what employees are told about chemicals they handle at work, how chemicals are labeled, what containers are needed to transport specific chemicals, and what emissions levels are acceptable from industries. In each instance, the local government’s role in regulating its own hazardous materials problems is critical.

In 1986, the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act made history by requiring a local farm, industry, or small business that stores a certain quantity of “extremely hazardous substances,” as defined by an EPA list, to report them to the SERC. This law, also known as the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, or just “Title III,” includes provisions intended to help local-level planners work with industry to identify and reduce risks from toxic chemicals, and, if necessary, to seek corrective action through legal remedies. It also creates new opportunities for citizens to identify and alter potentially hazardous conditions in their communities. It is based on the assumption that the more citizens know about local chemical hazards, the better equipped they and their local governments will be to make wise decisions about how risks associated with hazardous materials are managed in their communities.

Because Americans are exposed to toxic substances from so many sources, it is often difficult to trace a health effect to a particular source.

Chemicals being released into the environment (intentionally or accidentally) by industries are major challenges facing our country today. The chemical industry, plus manufacturers of hazardous chemicals, transporters, and users of hazardous substances, when combined with the many hazardous materials spills each year within the same community, presents local government with a potentially serious threat to the local environment and public health. Furthermore, automobiles emit nitrous oxides (one source of “acid rain”) and several air toxins. By becoming informed about hazardous materials laws, issues, and protective actions, local citizens can contribute to reducing their community’s hazardous materials threat.

Absorption and injection are two routes of entry that occur through direct skin contact with a hazardous material.

Chemicals and hazardous substances may enter the body by several routes, and the nature and onset of signs and symptoms may vary accordingly. Gases, vapors, and aerosols, when inhaled, may be absorbed through any part of the respiratory tract, from the mucosa of the nose and mouth to the alveoli of the lungs. The eye may also directly absorb them. Aerosol particles larger than 5 micrometer (μm) tend to be retained in the upper respiratory tract, while those smaller than 1 µm tend to be breathed in and out again, although some of these smaller particles may be retained. Droplets of liquid and, less commonly, solid particles may be absorbed through the surface of the skin and mucous membranes. Toxic compounds with a characteristic action on the skin can produce their effects when deposited on the skin as solid or liquid particles.

Chemicals or hazardous substances which penetrate the skin may form temporary reservoirs so that delayed absorption may occur. Even the vapor of some volatile chemicals and agents can penetrate the intact skin and intoxication may follow. Wounds or abrasions (even minor injuries caused by shaving or by chemical depilation) present areas which are more permeable than intact skin. Chemicals and hazardous substances may contaminate food and drink and so be absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. The penetration of chemicals and hazardous substances by these various routes may not be accompanied by irritation or damage to the surfaces concerned.

Methods of exposure to these chemicals are called routes of entry. They are:

1. Absorption
2. Ingestion
3. Injection
4. Inhalation

If we consider these routes of entry, it is possible to think of a number of ways in which contaminants escaping into the environment from their source may reach a living plant or animal, or receptor. Each specific route a chemical might travel from a source to a receptor is called an exposure pathway.

The pathway may be either direct or indirect. If an open toxic waste dump were near you, you could inhale the vapors from the toxic material, or your skin could contact toxic contaminants if you walked through the substance. These are direct means of exposure. The substance can also reach you by indirect pathways. For example, toxic vapors or particles from a site at which hazardous waste has been illegally discarded could be carried in the air to a cornfield and deposited on the crop as it rains. You ingest some of the toxic chemical as you eat the corn; or perhaps a farm animal eats the corn and you later eat meat from that animal.

Another pathway might be through drinking water. When rain falls and passes through polluted soil, it carries chemicals deeper into the earth as well as horizontally across the surface of the soil. If they are able to move far enough—which depends on the geology of that particular area—they could contaminate the groundwater. The contaminants could also be carried along the land by means of surface runoff, water that moves along the top of the soil, until they reach a recreational pond where children swim. Now there would be another opportunity for dermal contact.

There have been many attempts to categorize toxic effects and to define them in various ways. Generally, the terms “acute” and “chronic” are used to delineate between effects on the basis of severity or duration.

The first method or acute exposure is the exposure to a hazardous substance over a short period of time or at a high dose. A reaction to a chemical can occur at the time of exposure, and might include vomiting, eye irritation, or other symptoms that often may be readily linked to a chemical exposure. These are immediate and adverse effects.

The second method or chronic exposure is the exposure to a hazardous substance over a long period of time. If a carpenter used a stripper regularly and breathed in a little of it 8 hours a day for 40 years, a chronic exposure would result. This type of exposure occurs when a person is repeatedly exposed to the same chemical or hazardous substance over a long period of time at very low levels.

Similarly, the term chronic effect is often used to cover only carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and mutagenicity (terms to be discussed below). These effects are obviously a concern in the workplace, but again do not adequately cover the area of chronic effects, excluding, for example, blood dyscrasias (such as anemia), chronic bronchitis, and liver atrophy (wasting, losing function, or size).

When the body is exposed to a hazardous chemical, its internal defenses try to remove the unwanted substances. The primary internal defense is excretion of the contaminant with other wastes in the feces or urine. Prior to excretion, primarily the liver and kidneys filter wastes. As a result, these two organs are both subject to damage from toxic substances, storing in their tissues what they are unable to break down. Portions of the lungs contain cilia, which try to remove particles so that they can be coughed out. Particles that are too small or cannot be removed for other reasons will remain as deposits in the lower part of the lungs (alveoli), where they can cause scaring, fibrosis, or cancer.

Other body defenses against toxic substances are breathing and sweating. When an intoxicated person has the smell of alcohol on his or her breath, the smell indicates that the body is exhaling material it has no use for. Tears also remove contaminants that enter the eyes. However, these defenses contribute only a small amount to the body’s detoxification (that is, its attempt to rid itself of toxic substances).

The body’s ability to defend itself against toxic substances varies with the individual. Small children are liable to be more affected by the same amount of a substance than are larger or older persons. Elderly individuals also may have less ability to remove toxicants from the body. Gender can be a factor in toxic responses; for example, some cancers are sex-linked (such as prostate and ovarian cancers). Personal hygiene and the overall health of an individual can also adversely affect the body’s ability to process certain toxic substances. For example, a smoker is likely to be much more susceptible to lung cancer if he or she has also been exposed to high levels of radon gas.

Exposure to a poison becomes a problem when the material is of a type that inner defenses cannot break down and remove, or when there is more of it than the body can handle. In these instances, antidotes are available for a limited number of substances. However, only about 20 antidotes are in existence for the thousands of poisons in the world—and each antidote may work for only a few poisons.

Clearly, the safest barrier to toxic exposure is the prevention of exposure. This is why it is so important for citizens to be aware of the threat posed by hazardous materials in their own home and community, and to learn to minimize or eliminate unnecessary exposure.

Scientists determine what levels of exposure in human beings will produce observable symptoms by two types of studies. Epidemiological studies use data on how toxic substances affect human populations. This type of study might compare the number of workers exposed to a certain substance who develop lung cancer to those who develop it in the rest of the population. Other clinical studies test the effects of concentrated doses of substances on animals or animal tissue.

Scientists conduct two kinds of studies—epidemiological and clinical—to determine what levels of exposure to a hazardous substance will produce observable symptoms.

A basic principle of research on toxic substances is that the seriousness of the effect a poison has on the body increases as the dose increases. Theoretically, there is a threshold for exposure to each poison. Beneath the threshold, the dose is so small that no harmful effect will occur. As the dose increases, there is a point at which there is an effect, but the animal can compensate for it by internal healing, and no permanent injury will occur.

Beyond that, there is a dose at which the animal cannot repair itself from the damage and disease results. Finally, at the upper limit of the curve, death occurs.

Death would occur if sufficient quantities of any substance were taken into the body. For example, if a large group of people with similar characteristics ate half a pound of table salt, half of them would probably die. Through experiments, scientists try to establish the particular dosage of chemical (in mass per kilogram of body weight) that will result in the death of half the test animals: that is the Lethal Dose for 50% or LD₅₀. They also try to establish the point at the other end of the curve at which there is no observable effect from the substance on the animal. This is called the NOAEL: No Observable Adverse Effect Level.

Once the LD₅₀ for a substance has been established by repeated experiments with animals, it must be extrapolated to determine what the LD₅₀ would be for humans. This means adjusting the results to apply to human body weight and similar characteristics. But a toxic substance often has different effects on different species, so tests on animals cannot predict the exact effect that the substance will have on a human population. As a result, scientists are usually quite conservative in their estimates, which mean that they assume that the smallest dose that causes an effect in animals will also cause an effect in humans. In addition, scientists study the effect of a substance on human populations wherever statistics are available.

A toxic substance will sometimes combine with another substance to create a new chemical. The potential for harm of this new chemical can be greater or lesser than that of its individual components.

Another uncertainty associated with the LD₅₀ concept is that most LD₅₀ data is gained from acute exposure (single dose) testing rather than by chronic exposure. Extrapolation from these studies is complicated by the fact that chemicals are sometimes distributed differently in the body when the exposure is chronic; for example, a different target organ may be attacked, or the material may be excreted more easily.

Given these uncertainties, it is understandable why there is often considerable debate about what constitutes a “safe” level of exposure. For most substances, agency experts extrapolate conservatively from the NOAEL to set exposure limits for humans. OSHA uses Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), while the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist (ACGIH) uses Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), to define the workroom air concentration that is considered a safe upper limit of exposure. For carcinogens and mutagens, however, there is considered to be no such “safe” exposure limit for regulatory purposes. Every exposure carries some risk.

The movement of contaminants within a medium such as air, groundwater, or soil is known as transport.

Hazardous materials can enter the environment either from a specific source that can be pinpointed, known as a point source, or from sources that are more spread out, known as area sources. A factory smokestack and the flow of toxic waste from a pipe to a stream are point sources, while the liquid runoff from a field in which pesticides were used is considered an area source.

Contaminants behave differently in the environment depending on their physical state. A solid may stick to surfaces, scatter, or form a dust cloud; a liquid may seep into the ground, flow along the ground, or vaporize and become a gas; a gas will expand and be carried by the wind. Some chemicals are volatile, meaning that they evaporate easily. Such a chemical may enter a stream as a liquid but rapidly become an air pollution problem.

A non-volatile chemical entering the same stream at the same point may behave quite differently. A soluble chemical is one that will dissolve readily in water, and would be carried by the stream. Soluble chemicals tend to be mobile, meaning that they will move rapidly in the ground because they can be easily dissolved in groundwater. Another chemical might be more likely to adsorb to soil particles, becoming attached to particle surfaces. Such a chemical would attach to particles in the stream and eventually settle at the bottom. If the chemical were a persistent one, which resists breakdown in the environment, it might remain there for some time in the same form, while bacteria might break down a less persistent chemical. This breakdown is called biodegradation, and is an important risk management concept. Sometimes it is possible to increase biodegradation so that materials lose their harmful properties more readily.

The process of chemical breakdown, or biodegradation, can cause materials to lose their harmful properties and, in effect, “disappear.”

Certain chemicals tend to become more highly concentrated as they move through the food chain. This process is known as biomagnification.

Contaminants enter any of the various media—air, groundwater, surface water, or soil—and move as a mass along with the general flow of that medium. This movement of contaminants within a medium is called transport. Substances in transport also tend to spread out as they move, becoming diluted to a varying extent by the medium. This generally reduces the concentration, and therefore lowers the level of hazard.

Hazardous chemicals can enter the atmosphere from a point source (such as an industrial stack), or from an area source (such as the evaporation of volatile compounds from hazardous waste sites). A major factor affecting the level of contaminants in the air is the rate of dispersion, which is affected by both weather and topography (the shape of the land, including buildings). With a good, strong wind, air pollutants are dispersed more rapidly; when the air is calm, contaminant concentration increases. As a rough rule of thumb, contaminant levels are halved when wind speed is doubled. (This rule of thumb assumes no effect from topographical features.)

In urban locations, a turbulent “mixing area” of air exists which helps diffuse contaminants. This is due in part to the irregular surfaces of various-sized buildings and hot and cold spots created by contrasting materials such as concrete and grass.

Contaminant levels are also affected by the amount of vertical mixing that occurs. Normally, temperature decreases with height; we have all noticed how much colder the air is on top of a high mountain. In urban areas, under such temperature conditions, a turbulent mixing area of air exists, characterized by swirls, gusts, updrafts, and downdrafts. This movement is partly attributable to the irregular surfaces of small and tall buildings, and hot and cold spots created by contrasting materials (asphalt or concrete vs. grassy park areas). Polluted air is carried upward and dispersed, while relatively cleaner air moves downward. The net result is that pollutants move up and away from us.

Under weather conditions in which temperature increases with height, much less vertical mixing occurs, and pollutants can grow thick in the breathing zone. Such conditions typically occur when a warm air mass moves over a cooler layer of air. In areas with basin-like topography, such as Los Angeles, high-pressure systems can develop in which air above the 2,000- to 3,000-foot level dips and warms, while the air near the earth stays relatively cooler. Hazardous situations called “episodes” can last for days in such areas, often confining persons with respiratory difficulties such as emphysema indoors.

Under certain weather conditions, a “temperature inversion” can occur which traps contaminants and can promote unusually high levels of exposure.

The height of the source can also affect the distribution of pollutants in air. For ground-level releases, the highest concentrations are almost always near the source; for elevated sources such as stacks more than 30 feet above ground, however, the highest concentrations may be further downwind from the source. The size of the particles emitted is also relevant; larger particles are more likely to settle out near the source, while small ones will travel further in the air.

Groundwater, defined as water moving through soil and rock, is a common route for chemical movement. The source of groundwater contamination can include surface impoundments in which hazardous materials are disposed or stored, such as ponds and lagoons, leaking underground storage tanks, or any spill where contaminants can seep downward. The type of soil configuration is crucial in groundwater contamination. Some soil layers, such as clay, are harder for contaminants to move through (less permeable) and can protect the underlying groundwater.

While contaminants in rivers or streams are generally churned and diluted by movement as they are in the air, contaminants can move great distances in groundwater without dilution. Also, chemicals in the groundwater last longer; chemicals cannot evaporate, and they resist breakdown in the absence of air and light. It is difficult and sometimes impossible to purify contaminated groundwater.

Surface water includes oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, or any aboveground water source. It may be contaminated by industrial and sewage discharge pipes, chemical spills, or hazardous waste landfills.

The concentration of chemicals in surface water depends on the amount of the substance entering the water, its properties, and the water’s rate of flow. Chemicals that are heavier than water, which include PCBs and dioxin, settle out in the sediment at the bottom and can remain there for long periods, while lighter chemicals will flow with the stream. Exposure to light, oxygen, and organisms will break down some chemicals; others, such as heavy metals (lead and mercury), are persistent and do not break down easily. Substances that are persistent may be transported to estuaries (areas where rivers meet oceans) and accumulate in shellfish and fish.

Soil may become contaminated through dumping, spills, and other sources. Rainwater leaches some contaminants from the soil and carries them to the groundwater; other contaminants remain near the surface, where they can affect human health by entering the food chain (ingestion), emitting toxic vapors (inhalation), or rubbing onto the skin of children playing in the dirt (dermal absorption). Because contaminated soil is a basic contaminant medium that affects other media, it is of considerable importance.

Surface water generally dilutes contaminants as it moves; they tend to break down as they contact air and light. Contaminants resist breakdown in groundwater and do not disperse readily because there is nowhere to go.

Once a contaminant has gained a foothold in one medium, it may be released into others as well. Whether this happens or not depends on the contaminant’s characteristics and pathways available in the environment. Contaminants evaporate from the soil or water and enter the air through volatilization. Contaminants can also leach from the soil and enter water, or be blown by the wind and become airborne particles. When it rains, contaminated runoff from the soil can enter a stream. Therefore, it is impossible to simply place a chemical in one medium and forget about it. Careful thought must be given to how it may be released into other media.

While we often associate our hazardous materials problems with industry, naturally occurring toxic substances, products used in average households, and automobiles all contribute to our country’s challenge. Materials may be considered hazardous for different reasons—for example, some are liable to explode or burst into flame easily, while others can poison us. Poisons can enter our bodies by absorption, ingestion, inhalation, or injection, through various environmental pathways in different mediums.

Predicting how much of a substance will actually reach us from a particular source is complicated. Chemicals often follow complex pathways through the environment, leaving one medium to enter another, and being transformed and transported in different ways by each medium. They may either disperse harmlessly or become concentrated as they move through the food chain.

Numerous sources contribute to groundwater contamination. Because groundwater is a source of drinking water for half the Nation’s population, and because it is so hard to clean up, protecting this resource from contamination is a major concern.

While our bodies have many internal defenses against poisons, these defenses can be overwhelmed. Whether we are exposed to chemicals all at once or gradually over time, we can reach a threshold at which harmful effects are noticeable—sometimes years after our first exposure. To ensure our health and safety, we should take reasonable precautions to limit our potential exposure to hazardous substances.

Under Title III provisions, the State Emergency Response Commission (SERC) decides how many planning districts are needed to prepare adequate plans for responding to chemical emergencies throughout that State. Some States have LEPCs at the county level, while others have designated the entire State as a planning district with one LEPC. The SERC is responsible for appointing individuals to serve as LEPC members in each planning district.

Each LEPC prepares a plan based on a thorough understanding of the hazards faced by the specific area and the resources it has to meet them. The following steps would be required to complete a sound plan for any emergency.

Any chemical incident, or potential release, may draw firefighters, police, and emergency medical technicians to the scene. Response to a hazardous spill or fire is a complex process, requiring specially trained personnel and specialized equipment. A buddy system is needed to ensure personnel protection. A typical team would consist of approximately a minimum of eight well-equipped and trained members. Of these, two individuals perform incident operations and rescue, two others serve as operations backup, two are the Decontamination Team, and there is one safety and one operations officer.

A truly serious incident would require representatives of all three levels of government (Federal, State, and local) to be present at the scene, with each level consisting of personnel from between 5 and 15 different agencies. Scientists familiar with chemical properties would help develop a strategy for controlling the incident that is appropriate to the properties of the material. Environmental scientists would project the movement of materials and provide advice on minimizing the adverse impact on the environment. Local firefighters and specialized hazardous materials response teams (their capabilities enhanced through specialized training and additional resources brought in through interagency agreements) would manage the incident, as public safety personnel controlled crowds and traffic. The media, as well as lawyers and management representatives of the chemical company, would also be on hand. At a recent Florida incident, in fact, some 200 officials responded to the scene: this figure did not include the 21 workers handling the actual cleanup!

Given the large number of personnel at the site, roles and responsibilities must be clearly established in the contingency plan before the incident occurs. The Emergency Operations Plan will spell out these roles and responsibilities for each responding agency—but whether these responding agencies work smoothly together is largely dependent on the function of planning, and on how well the plan was communicated to key personnel.

Successful management of a hazardous materials incident falls upon the shoulders of the Incident Commander. In most States and jurisdictions, this individual is from the local fire service. The Incident Commander is tasked with directing all response and supporting operations in accordance with procedures specified in State or local ordinances and the local Emergency Operations Plan. As additional officials with higher rank arrive on the scene, they may assume the Incident Commander role. A good plan will eliminate any confusion as to who the Incident Commander is at any point in the emergency.

Other types of specialized assistance are available from governments, local industries, and from national organizations representing chemical manufacturers and transporters.

Hazardous Materials Response Teams (HMRTs). An HMRT is a specialized emergency response team formed to provide the particular skills, knowledge, and technical equipment needed to handle hazardous materials incidents. The chemical industry was the first provider of these services because it manufactured, transported, and used the products involved.

An HMRT is a major investment; whether the investment is warranted for a community depends on the nature of the risks it is facing as well as its resources. An HMRT would need specialized equipment, including expensive specialized protective clothing and detection instruments, containment vessel repair equipment, substance containment and recovery equipment, decontamination equipment, and instruments. The operating costs can be high—but so are the costs of a mismanaged incident. Often, local areas that cannot afford their own HMRTs pool their resources to form a more practical multijurisdictional team.

Specialized groups of emergency response personnel, known as Hazardous Materials Response Teams (HMRTs), meet the need for the specific knowledge and technical equipment required to handle hazardous materials incidents.

Regional Response Teams (RRTs). Regional Response Teams may be assembled to provide advice and support for transportation or fixed facility incidents that surpass the capability of State and local governments. The RRT reports to an On-Scene Coordinator who directs the response in keeping with the local Incident Commander. RRTs are composed of representatives from Federal agencies and a representative from each State within a Federal Region. Overall responsibility for coordinating Federal emergency preparedness and planning on a nationwide basis rests with the NRT, which is composed of representatives from 14 Federal agencies with major environmental, transportation, emergency management, worker safety, and public health responsibilities.

The Federal resources available in a significant emergency are immense. How they are used, however, is determined by the Incident Commander, and regulated by State statutes and local ordinances.

After you have been alerted of a hazardous materials incident, you should await further information from emergency response personnel. Upon receiving this information, follow it carefully. Your primary objective is to keep your distance from the incident in order to minimize your chances of contamination.

If you are caught outdoors during a hazardous materials incident, it is best to stay upstream, uphill, and/or upwind. Move toward a crosswind, so the wind is blowing from either the right or the left rather than directly in your face or at your back.

If you are caught outside in an incident, try to stay upstream, uphill, and upwind. You want to stay upstream from toxic waste flowing in water, so it is not carried towards you. Many toxic vapors are heavier than air and will tend to settle in low areas; thus, you are usually safest uphill where the topography will provide some protection.

Wind will play a critical role in distributing the toxic material, so you want to stay upwind—i.e., in the opposite area from where the wind is spreading the toxic fumes. If you are already caught in a plume, however, move in a crosswind direction, so the wind is blowing from either the right or left and not into your face or at your back.

How far away from an incident should you go to be safe? The answer to this will depend on weather conditions, topography, and the characteristics of the chemical itself. A high wind can carry the toxic substance many miles from the spill. Hills can delay dispersal, while the opposite is true of open country. (Your LEPC can gain low-cost access to highly sophisticated computer software that can project how far a plume is likely to extend under specific incident conditions.) In general, however, you should go at least 10 city blocks (one-half mile) from the danger area; for many incidents, you will need to go much further.

A major hazardous materials incident could require an evacuation of a large area. When a burning rocket fuels plant blew up in Henderson, Nevada, thousands had to leave the area, and interstate highway traffic was gridlocked. An overturned propane truck on New York’s Long Island kept 1,000 families from their homes for several days until the danger of explosion was over. At the peak of a fire at a plant where chlorine was stored, some 25,000 residents of Springfield, Massachusetts, were evacuated.

If you are asked to evacuate because of a hazardous materials emergency, do so immediately. Your local radio station or television channels should give you precise directions. Before leaving your home or office, close your windows and shut all vents to minimize contamination. If time permits, place a sign on your door or front window to notify the Public Service Department that your building has been evacuated and no one remains inside. It is also a good idea to provide a telephone number where you can be reached.

In a major emergency, the Red Cross and other local volunteer organizations will establish temporary shelters for evacuated residents. These shelters most frequently are located in schools or other large public facilities. Stay tuned to your radio for updates on the situation, evacuation routes, and alternative routes for traffic. If you are handicapped or need special assistance in order to evacuate, call your local police. (If you do not need this assistance, do not call; keep the line open for those who do!)

Your LEPC can gain access to highly sophisticated computer software that can project how far a plume will extend under specific incident conditions.

A hazardous materials incident offers opportunities for exposure by three primary routes discussed earlier in this manual: inhalation, absorption, and ingestion. The following guidance will help you minimize your exposure by these routes. This guidance is intended to supplement—not replace—information given by local emergency services personnel.

Minimizing the Inhalation Hazard. If you are in a motor vehicle, close off ventilation and shut your windows. As we have seen, covering your mouth and nose with a cloth provides a minimal amount of protection from contamination. The best protection is to distance yourself from the source; sightseeing at an incident of this type is an unnecessary risk to your health.

Minimizing the Risk of Skin Absorption. The skin can easily absorb many toxic materials. Since even a small amount of a chemical substance may be toxic, you should avoid contact with any spilled liquid material, mist in the air, or condensed solid chemical deposit. Keep your body fully covered—including gloves and socks—but remember that these measures are only minimally effective. Once you have left the area, you should fully disrobe, proceed through decontamination, and dress in fresh clothing.

Avoiding Ingestion of Toxic Substances. Toxic substances can be ingested if your food or water supply becomes contaminated. If you learn that you will be sheltered indoors, quickly fill up your bathtub with a supply of uncontaminated water and turn off the intake valve to your home. Do not eat any food that could have become contaminated in an incident.

Decontamination. A person or item that has been exposed to a hazardous material is contaminated and can contaminate other people or items (i.e., cross-contamination). For example, if you enter your car after being exposed to a toxic substance, you will contaminate your car.

Decontamination is the process of removing or neutralizing contaminants that have accumulated on people and equipment. At hazardous waste incidents, “clean” areas must be established and maintained, and materials in contaminated areas must be confined to specific “hot” zones. Response personnel who have had to enter the middle area—the contamination reduction zone—must later remove their clothing and equipment, shower in fresh water, be rinsed with neutralizing agents, re-shower, and change into clean clothing.

The specific procedure for decontamination will vary according to the chemical to which the individual was exposed. Certain items—e.g., leather and some plastic and rubber materials—absorb toxic substances so easily that they cannot be completely decontaminated; these items must be discarded.

If you witness a hazardous materials accident, spill, or leak, call 911 or your local emergency notification number with precise information about the incident.

As a concerned citizen, the first thing you can do is to find out how well—or poorly—your community is prepared for a hazardous materials incident.

The National Response Team has developed Integrated Contingency Plan (“ICP” or “One Plan”) Guidance. The ICP Guidance provides a way to consolidate into one functional emergency response plan the multiple plans that a facility may have prepared to comply with various regulations.

The ICP Guidance resulted from recommendations in the December 1993 NRT Report to Congress: A Review of Federal Authorities for Hazardous Materials Accident Safety. Facilities can use the ICP Guidance to consolidate their existing plans and to simplify their plan development and update process.

The ICP is available to facility owners and operators who must prepare emergency response plans for responding to oil discharges and releases of non-radiological hazardous substances. The NRT and the agencies responsible for reviewing and approving Federal response plans agree to accept plans prepared in the ICP format if the ICP option is appropriate for the facility. Your LEPC should be familiar with these plans and integrate the community plans into its template.

Each facility or plant will have its own local emergency response plan that will govern employees’ actions during an upset or emergency condition. Local, State, and Federal laws require these emergency response plans. Ask to see the plan, and review it for notification requirements to the community during an emergency. Plans should incorporate evacuation and notification requirements. Ask them if their plan has been tested. That is, has it been activated through simulated emergency drills, which included all the major response agencies that are mentioned in the plan (fire department, law enforcement, hospitals, etc.)?

If they have had a drill or simulated emergency, there will be an After-Action Report (AAR), which will describe their response strengths and weaknesses. You can ask to see their last AAR; they may or may not provide you a copy of this report. Local fire departments responsible for servicing these companies keep records of their inspections, responses, and calls to these facilities. For a small fee, you can have copies of these reports. As discussed earlier, the LEPCs are notified regarding such emergencies and incidents that released a reportable quantity (RQ) of a hazardous substance into the environment. As a good community partner, these companies will have no problem cooperating with your requests on how they do business.

Inspections shall be conducted by the site safety and health supervisor or, in the absence of that individual, another individual who is knowledgeable in occupational safety and health, acting on behalf of the employer as necessary to determine the effectiveness of the site safety and health plan.

The employer, when identified through inspections or site incidents, must correct any deficiencies in the effectiveness of the site safety and health plan. These inspections reports should be a part of the community’s evaluation of the site’s compliance with OSHA’s health and safety standards.

Protecting a community from the consequences of a hazardous materials accident requires teamwork that does not happen automatically. Responders to an incident must be working in a framework that clearly specifies their respective responsibilities. This means agreeing together on how they would locate and direct the resources—both personnel and equipment—a hazardous materials incident might require, documenting their shared understanding in a plan, training responders to fulfill their responsibilities, and conducting periodic tests to be sure the plan is realistic and responders are ready to carry it out.

In the event of a major incident, local responders could access additional expertise through State and Federal agencies. Local citizens, however, can do little to assist in most such incidents. Rather than trying to volunteer to assist, citizens should be aware of what public information systems would be used and tune in to them for instructions. Citizens should also do what they can to minimize their exposure to toxic substances; in some cases, staying indoors with tightly closed windows may be healthier than evacuating through toxic vapors. The responding agencies will have access to information about the chemical, its behavior, weather conditions, and other data essential to make the best decision about protecting lives; therefore, it is of primary importance to follow their directions.